HickeyDon3.htm

The War of 1812: Still a Forgotten Conflict?

Don Hickey

Wayne State College

Wayne, NE 68787

dhickey@wscgate.wsc.edu

[Revised: July 10, 2000]

Abstract

Since the late 1980s, there has been a huge outpouring of scholarship on the War of 1812. In the 1990s alone, more than sixty books bearing on the conflict were published, making this the most prolific decade ever for 1812 studies. Although this literature has enhanced our understanding of the war, it is probably premature to drop the label forgotten conflict. The scholarship has been narrowly focused on the war's military history and is unlikely to affect the standard treatment in textbooks. Moreover, despite a number of encouraging signs, it is not yet certain that the public will embrace the war as enthusiastically as scholars have. Finally, considerable work remains to be done, not only on the military history of the war but also on its domestic and diplomatic history.

The War of 1812: Still a Forgotten Conflict?

In 1999 David Curtis Skaggs published a review in the William and Mary Quarterly of two new books on the War of 1812. In that review, Skaggs said: Since the publication of Donald R. Hickey's The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana, Ill., 1989), there has been a veritable flood of books trying to disprove his subtitle.¹ Skaggs's assessment is certainly correct, at least on the war's military history. In the 1990s some sixty-five books bearing on the military history of the war were published, making this the most prolific decade ever for 1812 studies. And judging from additional projects known to be under way, there appears to be no letup in sight.

In the mid-1980s, when I began in earnest to work on my book, the historiographical landscape was very different. Two source guides had just been published: John Fredriksen's bibliography, which lists over 6,000 works, and Dwight Smith's annotated bibliography, which describes almost 1,400.² Although Fredriksen's work is marred by a great many transcription errors, it is still the most complete bibliography on the war.

We also had a number of good military histories of the war. Harry Coles's study was the liveliest; Reginald Horsman's was the most accurate; and John Mahon's was the most detailed. In addition, Glenn Tucker had written a two-volume study which offered the best context for the war; and Tucker had collaborated with James R. Jacobs to produce a short study that provided the best explanation of military policy and equipment.³ In addition, two Canadian scholars, J. Mackay Hitsman and George Stanley, had written pretty good accounts of the fighting along the Canadian-American border.⁴ Hitsman's work was a solid military history presenting the Canadian perspective, while Stanley's study provided good detail and balance and showed a fine grasp of the importance of logistics. Although we had good modern studies of the fighting on the Gulf Coast and in the Champlain Valley, few other battles or campaigns had been subjected to modern analysis.⁵ The state of historiography on the war at sea was much the same. Theodore Roosevelt's nineteenth-century study was still the best work on the naval war, and Alfred Thayer Mahan's 1905 study still offered the best analysis of naval strategy.⁶ Beyond this, we had only a few modern naval biographies and ship studies.⁷

General Works

Today, the literature on the military history of the war is far richer. John Fredriksen, who has emerged as war's unofficial bibliographer (at least of American sources), has published an annotated work describing 870 eyewitness accounts and is now working on an annotated list of the all the manuscript collections bearing on the conflict.⁸ We also have two new encyclopedias. One, prepared by David and Jeanne Heidler, is devoted exclusively to the war.⁹ Perhaps out of necessity, the Heidlers wrote a large number of the entries themselves, and the other essays were not always assigned to the leading authority on the subject. Even so, the Heidlers managed to secure essays from a fine group of scholars, and the resulting work, replete with maps, illustrations, documents, a chronology, and a bibliography, is a splendid accomplishment. Equally impressive is Robert Rutland's encyclopedia of James Madison, which includes a host of essays on 1812 subjects, many written by distinguished scholars.¹⁰

In the 1990s several general military histories of the war were published. In both my original work and in an abridged edition published in 1995, I had argued that the United States lost the war because it had initiated the contest and yet had not achieved the aims for which it was fighting.¹¹ In a short account published in 1990, Canadian Wesley Turner argued that both sides won.¹² The United States had won because it had eliminated the British and Indians as a threat, and Canada had won because it had fended off invasion and vindicated its existence as a nation.
Another military history, written by the late John Elting, is a lively work that shows a good command of geography and of army organization and procedures but illustrates the dangers writing history from secondary sources.¹³ Although Elting was an accomplished historian of the Napoleonic Wars, his treatment of the War of 1812 is filled with errors and misconceptions. By contrast, Donald E. Graves has done a fine job updating J. Mackay Hitsman's 1965 work.¹⁴ Still another recent military history is the late Robert Quimby's two-volume work on the army's role.¹⁵ Based mainly on government documents, this work reads like a semi-official account. The numbing detail and ponderous style may put some readers off, but for everyone this study should be a useful reference work.

Philip Katcher and Bryan Fosten have prepared another general work on the war, a volume in the Osprey's Men-at-Arms series.¹⁶ This brief book contains photographs and paintings of the uniforms of the armies on both sides. Rene Chartrand has written a more comprehensive account of the uniforms, arms, and accoutrements of all the American forces in the war--regulars, militia, marines, naval personnel, and even some privateersmen.¹⁷ This work is richly illustrated and loaded with information. Chartrand also has completed two volumes in a three-volume large-format work on Canada's military heritage.¹⁸ This work has a mild Francophone bias and its treatment of the War of 1812 is pedestrian, but it is well illustrated and presents a good description of British army life in nineteenth-century Canada. Chartrand also has collaborated with Gerry Embleton on a short volume in the Osprey Men-at-Arms series on the uniforms of the British and Canadian forces of the era.¹⁹ Frank Winter has written an informative account of the Congreve rocket system, which the British used extensively in the Chesapeake campaign of 1814 and which various American inventors tried to duplicate.²⁰ Finally, for those who wish to tour the battlefields, Gilbert Collins's recent handbook is thorough and supersedes all earlier guides.²¹

The Officers and Men

We have a number of new works on the officers and men of the opposing armies. William Skelton's superb work on the American officer corps examines the evolution of the American army from the Revolution to the Civil War.²² Although focusing on the antebellum period, when Skelton believes a truly professional officer corps emerged, the War of 1812 clearly sowed the seeds. In a subsequent article, Skelton detailed how the army's high command (field and general grade officers) was gradually transformed between 1808 and 1815.²³ Skelton attributes early failures during the War of 1812 less to the incompetence of the officers than to institutional weaknesses in the army.

Another book on the American officer corps is John Fredriksen's collection of biographical sketches of thirty American officers who served on the Niagara frontier in the so-called Left Division of the army.²⁴ Evidently aimed at a popular audience, this work is too superficial to be of much use to scholars. In yet another work, Gerard Altoff describes the neglected role of African-Americans in the conflict.²⁵ Altoff suggests that because of growing American manpower needs, African-Americans played an increasingly important role in the war on land, at sea, and on the lakes. Finally, in an important recent article, John Stagg compares the peacetime and wartime armies in the United States between 1802 and 1815 and concludes that they attracted very different kinds of recruits.²⁶

Still another useful study is Edward Skeen's detailed account of the role of the American militia.²⁷ Although Skeen never solved the organizational problem of telling a story that involved militia from thirteen states serving in theaters all over the United States, his work is loaded with information and thenceforth should be the starting point for anyone interested in the militia's role. In another study of the militia, Mark Pitcavage has demonstrated that a small population and tax base in strategically important frontier areas doomed the territorial militia to ineffectiveness.²⁸ A final work that sheds light on the militia is Michael Bellesiles's article on American gun culture, which shows that the ownership of guns and the proficiency in their use was far less widespread in the early national period than previously had been thought.²⁹

Several recent biographies of American generals should be noted. John Eisenhower's study of Winfield Scott presents a good narrative of Scott's military career but is too uncritical and especially weak whenever the author strays from strictly military matters.³⁰ More useful is Timothy Johnson's study of Scott, which shows a better grasp of his subject's weaknesses--his oversized ego and fatal character flaws.³¹ Finally, John Morris's new biography of long-neglected Jacob Brown has burnished the reputation of a general who had a remarkably successful wartime and postwar military career.³²

For the British officer corps, we have Wesley Turner's thoughtful and innovative study of the leadership, civilian and military, of five generals--George Prevost, Isaac Brock, Roger Sheaffe, Francis de Rottenburg, and Gordon Drummond.³³ Turner ranks Brock and Drummond the highest, followed by Sheaffe and Prevost and then Rottenburg. This ranking gives Drummond more credit than conventional wisdom and Brock less. Another Canadian, Stuart Sutherland, has prepared a biographical register of the British officers who served in Canada during the war.³⁴ In a pair of introductory essays, Sutherland provides an overview of the officers' careers and of British army administration, including a much-needed explanation of the arcane system of British promotion.

We also have several new works that shed light on the Canadian militia. In a social history of Upper Canada, George Sheppard (like several others before him) has taken direct aim at the hoary myth that the militia saved Canada during the war.³⁵ Anther scholar, William Gray, has prepared a guide to the militia from Upper Canada who served in the conflict.³⁶ Although undocumented, his work provides a particularly good overview of the militia. In contrast to Sheppard, Gray argues that citizen soldiers in Canada made a significant contribution (particularly in supporting roles) and that many of those who refused to serve did so simply because the pay was so pitiful--especially compared to what they could earn in the labor-starved private sector. Yet another scholar, Luc Lepine, has prepared a similar guide to militia officers who served in the war from Lower Canada.³⁷ Finally, in a study of the New Brunswick militia, David Facey-Crowther argues that the main purpose of the force was to provide a pool of recruits from which provincial corps could be raised in time of crisis.³⁸ Two such corps, enrolling 1,300 men, were raised during the War of 1812.

The Old Northwest

In addition to these general studies, there have been many specialized studies of battles and campaigns. Of the five major theaters of operations, the Old Northwest was probably the least important because it was so far removed from the centers of power, population, and commerce further east. Nevertheless, it was fiercely contested. In a study of British general Henry Procter's role, Sandy Antal has given us a new account of campaigning on the Detroit River frontier.³⁹ Antal seeks to rehabilitate Procter's reputation. Although not entirely successful--after all, Procter lost an army at the Thames--Antal reminds us that Procter also played a role in earlier British victories. In addition, Antal provides a good analysis of British policy and strategy and of warfare on the Detroit and Ohio frontiers. In another study bearing on this theater, Bruce Bowlus describes the British assault on Fort Stephenson in Lower Sandusky (now Fremont), Ohio, in 1813.⁴⁰ Finally, Stuart Rammage examines the little-known Battle of Malcom's Mills in western Upper Canada in 1814.⁴¹

There are also a number of new studies on the war on Lake Erie, a waterway crucial to the land war in the Old Northwest. In 1988 a special issue of the Journal of Erie Studies was published commemorating the 175th anniversary of Oliver H. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. This contains a number of informative essays, most notably Michael Palmer's compelling indictment of Perry.⁴² About the same time, Gerard Altoff published an equally compelling indictment of Perry's nemesis, Jesse Duncan Elliott.⁴³ Shortly thereafter, William Welsh and David Skaggs published another valuable anthology, which has an especially illuminating essay on the murky subject of naval tactics and artillery by Frederick Drake.⁴⁴

We also have several new studies on the Battle of Lake Erie. Canadians Robert and Thomas Malcomson have produced a large-format, heavily illustrated book aimed at a general audience.⁴⁵ Their account gives due attention to the British side of the story without sacrificing balance or ignoring the American side. More recently, David Skaggs and Gerard Altoff have collaborated on a thorough and thoughtful study based on extensive research.⁴⁶ Their work is likely to be the standard treatment of the battle for some time to come. In yet another work, Altoff presents the most complete description we have of the 600 Americans who served in Perry's fleet, 40 percent of whom were regulars or militia with little or no naval experience.⁴⁷

The Niagara Frontier

The second major theater of operations--along the Niagara frontier--witnessed some of the fiercest fighting of the war and has generated some of the best recent literature. In 1991 Arthur Bowler edited a richly illustrated anthology on the Niagara theater which includes a number of useful essays, most notably Donald E. Graves's reassessment of the training of Winfield Scott's troops at Buffalo.⁴⁸ Graves also has written books of exceptional quality on the battles of Chippawa and Lundy's Lane.⁴⁹ These works, which have established Graves as the preeminent battlefield historian of the war, have everything one could hope for: a good description of the men and equipment, excellent maps and illustrations, and an uncommonly lucid account of the unfolding battles.⁵⁰

Complementing Graves's work is Joseph Whitehorne's concise operational study of the series of battles fought at Fort Erie in 1814.⁵¹ Whitehorne's work includes a number of appendices that provide additional information on the campaign, especially on the American troops involved. Also useful is a collection of essays--essentially a scientific report--edited by Susan Pfeiffer and Ronald Williamson describing the excavation and analysis of the remains of twenty-eight American soldiers found in a military cemetery that was discovered at Fort Erie in 1987.⁵² The scientific prose in this work may discourage some readers, but the way that information was gleaned from the skeletons is fascinating, and the findings (which are conveniently summarized in a well-written concluding chapter) shed light on the kind of men who served in the American army. For those who prefer to avoid the scientific jargon altogether, there is a fine popular account of this project by Paul Litt, Ronald Williamson, and Joseph Whitehorne that is not only well written but also has information that is not found in the report.⁵³ Finally, John Stagg has uncovered a plan prepared by Peter B. Porter for an invasion of Canada in 1812 which he analyzes in an article.⁵⁴ Stagg argues that Porter's strategic recommendations were designed to support his goal of building an Ontario canal. Although he presents little direct evidence to support this contention, the document is nonetheless important, and Stagg's commentary reminds us how often national policy and strategy in this era was seen through local prisms.

Just as the control of Lake Erie was crucial to the war in the Northwest, so too did control of Lake Ontario affect the war on the Niagara. Although this was an important theater of operations, no decisive battles were fought here. Instead, each side sought to outbuild the other in what has been called a shipbuilder's war.⁵⁵ As a result, students of the War of 1812 have been inclined to slight Lake Ontario, preferring to focus on the more glamorous and decisive battles fought on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. Robert Malcomson has now remedied this deficiency with a detailed and balanced account of the war on Lake Ontario, which includes a series of tables in the appendix giving the strength of each side at different points in the war.⁵⁶ Malcomson has also written a fine article describing HMS St. Lawrence (102 guns), the first-rate ship-of-the-line the British had in service on Lake Ontario in the last months of the war.⁵⁷ Malcomson's work should be read in conjunction with Patrick Wilder's excellent study of the Battle of Sackett's Harbor.⁵⁸

The St. Lawrence Front

For the third major theater of operations, the St. Lawrence River and adjoining areas, we also have several new works. Donald E. Graves has again left his mark with a superb account of the British victory at Crysler's Farm and the triumph of the French Canadian militia at Chateauguay.⁵⁹ Graves points out that defeat in these battles brought a new set of men to command in the American army. David Fitz-Enz has a book in press on the Battle of Plattsburgh, which will shed new light on the fighting and will argue that the American victory had a decisive effect on the peace negotiations.⁶⁰

The Chesapeake Bay

The fourth major theater of operations, the Chesapeake Bay, was virtually without any modern work in the mid-1980s other than Walter Lord's fine popular account.⁶¹ We now have several good studies, each approaching the war from a different angle. The most comprehensive is Joseph Whitehorne's mistitled account of the entire British campaign in the Chesapeake from 1812 to 1814.⁶² Whitehorne apparently relied heavily on published sources, and he has a weak introductory chapter on the causes of the war, but otherwise his work is concise, thoughtful, and informative. In another work, Anthony Pitch presents a lively and detailed (though at times confusing) account of the campaign against Washington and Baltimore.⁶³ We also have two new biographies of Horatio Nelson's bold and gifted protege, Admiral George Cockburn, who spearheaded British operations in the Chesapeake, culminating in the assault on Washington. James Pack was more interested in Cockburn as an individual, and his study presents a more detailed account of Cockburn's Chesapeake campaign.⁶⁴ Roger Morriss, on the other hand, was more interested in Cockburn's place in the Royal Navy tradition, and his work shows a firmer grasp of British strategic considerations in the war.⁶⁵

The Southwest and Gulf Coast

The fifth theater of operations, the Gulf Coast, was much better served by historians in the 1980s, largely because of the appeal of the spectacular Battle of New Orleans. Even so, we have several new works on the campaigning here. Gene Smith has put out a new edition of Arsene Lacarriere Latour's important contemporary work on the war on the Gulf Coast.⁶⁶ Smith explains Latour's role in the war in an introductory chapter, and he has added twenty documents to the appendix that Latour planned to include in a future edition. Building on his research on Andrew Jackson over the years, Robert Remini has produced a lively account of the Battle of New Orleans that is rich in detail but thinly documented.⁶⁷ Remini calls this battle one of the great defining moments in the history of the republic because it helped establish American character and vindicate American nationhood.⁶⁸ Finally, Tim Pickles has written a breezy, undocumented account of the Battle of New Orleans that is part of the Osprey Campaign Series.⁶⁹ This work is useful mainly for its lavish illustrations.

The Indians

Further enhancing our understanding of the War of 1812 has been the publication of a number books on the Indians. Gregory Dowd has written a compelling analysis of the spiritually-based and remarkably persistent pan-Indian movement, though his treatment of the war years is regrettably thin.⁷⁰ John Sugden helps remedy this deficiency in his detailed biography of Tecumseh, the best-known leader of the Indian unity movement.⁷¹ Sugden's work is based extensive research, and the story he tells is richly textured, fair-minded, and remarkably informative. The late Robert Allen has written an account of Britain's relationship with the Indians, emphasizing the critical role they played in the defense of Canada, especially during the War of 1812.⁷²

We also have several new works that focus on the northern Indians. Richard White's study is a fine example of the new Indian history that places Indian peoples at the center of the scene and seeks to understand the reasons for their actions.⁷³ White calls the Old Northwest the middle ground, a kind of no-man's land where Indians and whites interacted in an extraordinary variety of ways, most of which had very little to do with imperial or tribal policy. Another important work shedding light on the northern Indians is Carl Benn's superb study of the Iroquois.⁷⁴ Like Robert Allen, Benn argues that the Indians played a crucial role in the defense of Canada, and he has a particularly good chapter on how the Iroquois waged war. He also demonstrates how this once powerful confederation, divided and greatly weakened by the American Revolution, was utterly devastated by the War of 1812. Less useful is Christopher Densmore's brief biography of Red Jacket, the Seneca orator and statesmen who sided with the United States.⁷⁵ Densmore shows that Red Jacket deserves to be remembered for his efforts to preserve Seneca tribal lands and traditions but adds little to our understanding his role in the War of 1812.

We also have several new books that focus on the Indians in the Southwest. Kathryn Braund's study of Creek trade shows how contact with whites fundamentally transformed Creek society and ultimately led to the Creek civil war in 1813.⁷⁶ Similarly, Benjamin Griffith's dual biography of William McIntosh and William Weatherford, two mixed-breed leaders who fought on opposite sides in the Creek civil war, also argues that white contact caused the internecine conflict.⁷⁷ Finally, David and Jeanne Heidler have written a study of Andrew Jackson and American expansion in the Southwest that is sharply critical of Old Hickory, portraying him as an angry young man who became an angry old man.⁷⁸

Together these works present a great deal of information on how Native Americans lived and on their role in the war, showing that they were much more than passive agents to be manipulated by the belligerent powers.

The War at Sea

The war at sea has attracted almost as much attention as the war on land. Robert Gardiner has written a heavily-illustrated large-format work that presents an overview of the naval war.⁷⁹ This is a British production, the fifth and last volume in a series on the British navy in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Although an informative and useful corrective to American studies, this work is married by an unnecessary introductory chapter that is filled with errors and by a tendency to distort the evidence to make the British look better. We also have two volumes in the superb documentary collection being produced by William Dudley and his colleagues at the Washington Naval Historical Center.⁸⁰ This collection, which is now projected to reach four volumes, covers all aspects of the war on the coast, the high seas, and the lakes, including operations, supply, recruitment, privateers, marines, ship construction, prisoners-of-war, and inter- and intra-service rivalries. Finally, in a recent article Peter Kastor sheds light on American naval strategy at the beginning of the war--although his claim that the administration sent the navy to sea only because the army was so slow to mobilize appears dubious.⁸¹

Another valuable work on the navy is Christopher McKee's study of the officer corps.⁸² McKee presents an excellent analysis of how the navy worked before and during the War of 1812, focusing on the duties of officers, navy finances, deaths and resignations, crime and punishment, alcoholism (predictably widespread), and homosexuality (surprisingly rare). Another useful work is Harold Langley's informative but diffuse study of naval medicine, which details attempts to cope with health problems ashore and afloat and also describes the movement to establish a more professional medical service.⁸³ Complementing Langley's work is Seebert Goldowsky's fascinating biography of Usher Parsons, the surgeon who served on the Niagara frontier and in Perry's squadron on Lake Erie.⁸⁴

Spencer Tucker's illustrated study of naval guns and ordnance is yet another valuable work.⁸⁵ Although this study is indispensable for understanding the war at sea, Tucker presents little information on how the guns actually performed in battle, and his spare documentation style will make it difficult for others to duplicate his research. Tucker also has produced a fine study of Jefferson's gunboat navy.⁸⁶ Tucker argues that during the War of 1812 gunboats played a useful (if modest) role, convoying coastal vessels and serving as transports for the navy. In another study on the gunboats, Gene Smith makes the credible argument these vessels contributed to the American victories on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain as well as at New Orleans, although his claim that they also delayed the British assault on Washington and prevented an attack on Charleston and Savannah seems to go too far.⁸⁷

We also have new studies on several ships and naval engagements. Stephen Duffy has published a popular book on the cruise in 1814 of the USS Wasp, which captured a host of enemy warships and merchantmen before disappearing at sea.⁸⁸ Frances Robotti and James Vescovi have written a popular history of the USS Essex that challenges Captain David Porter's claim that he did $5 million dollars in damage to the British in the Pacific before his ship was captured and turned into an Irish prison hulk.⁸⁹ Similarly, Tyrone G. Martin has significantly revised his authoritative popular work from 1980 on the USS Constitution, presenting additional detail on the ship and its extraordinarily successful cruises during the War of 1812.⁹⁰ In another popular work, James Tertius de Kay traces the history of the Macedonian, the British frigate that was captured by the USS United States in 1812.⁹¹ Calling this the most important prize of war ever taken by the American Navy, de Kay shows how the navy kept this trophy ship on display until it was finally dropped from the rolls in 1875.⁹² In still another popular work, De Kay describes the Anglo-American sparring in Long Island Sound and Great Britain's curious assault in 1814 on the exposed but inoffensive town of Stonington, Connecticut.⁹³

We have several new naval biographies as well. Gene Smith has just published a fine study of Thomas ap Catesby Jones, the naval officer who fought smugglers and then the British at New Orleans.⁹⁴ Similarly, Ira Dye has written a dual biography of two commanders, William Allen of the USS Argus and John Maples of HMS Pelican, whose vessels clashed in 1813.⁹⁵ In the process of telling his story, Dye presents a good deal of information on British and American naval service.

The War of 1812 was the last war in which privateering played a significant role, and several recent works that touch upon the subject should be mentioned. Faye Kert has written a fine account of Canadian privateering, demonstrating that this species of warfare contributed to the unprecedented prosperity of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during the war.⁹⁶ Kert has informative chapters on the operations of privateers, the evolution of prize law and prize courts, the British system for licensing enemy trade, and disposition of navy prizes. She also compares Canadian privateering with the practice in the United States. In another work, Richard Winslow presents a colorful if superficial account of private armed vessels operating out of Portsmouth.⁹⁷ Finally, Robin Fabel has written an article that presents a good description of what life was like at Dartmoor prison for some 6,500 American POWs, most of whom were taken from privateers or released from British warships at the beginning of the war.⁹⁸

Works in Progress

All in all, the recent outpouring of literature on the military history of the War of 1812 has been remarkable. Nor is the end in sight. Robert Malcomson is working on a study of the Battle of Queenston Heights; James Elliott is writing one on the Battle of Stoney Creek; John Grodzinski is pursuing research on the war on the St. Lawrence River; William Gray has another project under way on the militia of Upper Canada; Donald E. Graves is working on a biography of the Canadian traitor Joseph Willcocks; John Stagg is working on a social history of the American army; Frederick Drake is working on the naval war; David Skaggs is writing a dual biography of Oliver Perry and Thomas Macdonough; Carl Benn is preparing a scholarly edition of the journal of the influential Anglo-Indian leader John Norton; Gene Smith is preparing a comprehensive study of African-Americans in the war; and John Weiss is researching the 4,000 slaves who fled with the British at the end of the war.

Still a Forgotten Conflict?

Does this renaissance mean that we can drop the label forgotten conflict? Probably not yet. Most of the work has been done in the United States and Canada. Canadians have been especially busy, producing a disproportionate number of 1812 studies, probably because the war has a more central place in their history. The British, by contrast, still consider the second American war little more than a footnote to the Napoleonic Wars and continue to ignore it.⁹⁹ Hence, we have no study that treats the contest from a strictly British perspective. Moreover, virtually all the new work has been confined to the war's military history; the domestic and diplomatic history has been largely ignored.¹⁰⁰ In addition, while the new works have given us a deeper understanding of the war, this will probably not significantly alter the way the conflict is treated in textbooks. Recent scholarship has not significantly changed the big picture of the war, and most textbooks do not go much beyond this. Textbook writers are usually slow to adopt new ideas anyway (unless, of course they deal with trendy subjects, such as race, gender, class, or ethnicity).

Nor is it certain that the public will embrace the war as enthusiastically as scholars have. There are, however, some indications that it may. Studies dealing with the conflict seem to sell reasonably well (although this could be simply a reflection of the general popularity of military history). Moreover, although only 4 of the 233 cultural or historical sites managed by the National Park Service are devoted to the war, the Park Service has initiated a study of all 1812 sites in the United States in the hope of promoting local preservation.¹⁰¹ Canadian officials and scholars seem equally determined to preserve sites on their side of the border. Also encouraging is the way that reenactors around the country have gravitated to the conflict and the apparent success of David Nevin's recent novel on the war.¹⁰²

The War of 1812 Consortium in Baltimore publishes a popular quarterly journal and sponsors an annual fall symposium devoted to the war.¹⁰³ MilitaryHeritage.com maintains The War of 1812 Website aimed at military buffs.¹⁰⁴ In addition, Holts Tours of Kent, England, has offered several tours of 1812 sites, and HistoryAmerica Tours of Dallas, Texas, has started offering similar tours (though the inaugural tour in 1999 did not draw nearly as well as established tours dealing with the Revolution, the Civil War, or the Indian wars of the West).¹⁰⁵

Documentary films could further stimulate public interest. Here, as in other areas, the Canadians have taken the lead. Arnie Gelbart has produced a four-part film presenting the British/Canadian/Indian view of the war for Galafilm of Canada.¹⁰⁶ This film has been broadcast on local stations in Ontario as well as on the History Channel. Mark Starowicz is producing a sixteen-part documentary on the history of Canada for CBC/Radio-Canada that will air on CBC over a three-year period starting in the fall of 2000.¹⁰⁷ The fifth episode, Rebels, Loyalists, and Invaders, which will cover the American Revolution and the War of 1812, will be broadcast on November 12, 2000. Two Americans, Bruce Carlin and David Fitz-Enz of Cannonade Filmworks, have recently completed a fine film on the Battle of Plattsburgh and are contemplating a documentary that would cover the entire war.¹⁰⁸

Future Work

Is there additional work still to be done on the war? There certainly is. Although scholars have pursued some of the leads I that suggested in my 1989 study (and also some that did not occur to me), there are still gaps in our knowledge. We need full-dress modern studies of the battles of Tippecanoe, Detroit, and Fort George and of the British occupation of Maine. We also need fuller studies on the British and American supply systems, the treatment of prisoners of war, and the role of privateering.

There also is work to be done on the domestic and diplomatic history of the war. To better assess the causes of the war, we need modern studies of the British practice of impressment, the American use of economic sanctions, and the economic impact on the United States of the British Orders-in-Council and the French Continental Decrees. For the war itself, we need to know more about the scope and role of enemy trade, the part played by Republican dissidents in the United States and Canadian dissidents in Canada, and the way that enemy aliens were treated on both sides. We also could use modern treatments of the financial history of the war in the United States and Canada. Finally, the social and economic history of the contest in both countries has barely been touched, and it may not be too soon to take another look at the war's diplomatic history.¹⁰⁹

Fortunately, source material for much of this research is readily accessible. In the United States, most of the pertinent government records, personal correspondence, newspapers, pamphlets, and other sources are available on microfilm and thus can be bought or borrowed through interlibrary loan. Much of the British material is available on microfilm as well. According to Donald E. Graves, The National Archives of Canada in Ottawa has acquired all the British diplomatic, strategical and operational primary documentation of the war in the north and it is well indexed, organized and available microfilm for loan.¹¹⁰

In sum, even though we know more about the War of 1812 than we did ten or fifteen years ago, there are still plenty of opportunities for those interested in pursuing research on the forgotten conflict.

Notes

I am indebted to Donald E. Graves and Gene A. Smith for generously sharing their knowledge on the recent literature of the war. I am also indebted to June Davidson, Jan Brumm, and Gayle Poirier at the U. S. Conn Library at Wayne State College for helping me track down items.

Footnotes:

1. William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 56 (January 1999), 228. The two books were Joseph Whitehorne's The Battle for Baltimore and Anthony Pitch's The Burning of Washington, both of which are discussed below.

2. John C. Fredriksen, Free Trade and Sailors' Rights: A Bibliography of the War of 1812 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985); Dwight L. Smith, The War of 1812: An Annotated Bibliography (New York: Garland Publishing, 1985).

3. Harry L. Coles, The War of 1812 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Reginald Horsman, The War of 1812 (New York: Knopf, 1969); John K. Mahon, The War of 1812 (Gainsville: University of Florida Press, 1972); Glenn Tucker, Poltroons and Patriots: A Popular Account of the War of 1812, 2 vols. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1954); James Ripley Jacobs and Glenn Tucker, The War of 1812: A Compact History (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1969). The studies by Horsman, Mahon, and Tucker are documented; those by Coles and Jacobs-Tucker are not.

4. J. Mackay Hitsman, The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965); George F. G. Stanley, The War of 1812: Land Operations (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada and National Museums of Canada, 1983). Hitsman's work was undocumented, while Stanley's was lightly documented.

5. For the Gulf Coast, see Charles B. Brooks, The Siege of New Orleans (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1961); Wilburt S. Brown, The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana, 1814-1815: A Critical Review of Strategy and Tactics at New Orleans (University, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1969); and Frank L. Owsley, Jr., Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812-1815 (Gainsville: University Presses of Florida, 1981). For the Champlain Valley, see Allan S. Everest, The War of 1812 in the Champlain Valley (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1981).

6. Theodore Roosevelt, The Naval War of 1812 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1882); A. T. Mahan, Sea Power and Its Relations to the War of 1812, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1905). Before Roosevelt's work, the best account of the naval war, and it is also very good, was James Fenimore Cooper's History of the Navy of the United States of America, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1840).

7. Most notably, Linda M. Maloney, The Captain from Connecticut: The Life and Naval Times of Isaac Hull (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1985); and Tyrone G. Martin, A Most Fortunate Ship: A Narrative of the U.S.S. Constitution (Chester, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 1980).

8. John C. Fredriksen, War of 1812 Eyewitness Accounts: An Annotated Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997).

9. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997).

10. Robert A. Rutland, ed., James Madison and the American Nation, 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994).

11. The abridged edition is The War of 1812: A Short History (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1995). Canadian historian George Stanley also argued that the United States lost the war. See Stanley, War of 1812, 407.

12. Wesley B. Turner, The War of 1812: The War that Both Sides Won (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1990).

13. John R. Elting, Amateurs to Arms! A Military History of the War of 1812 (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 1991).

14. J. Mackay Hitsman, The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History, updated by Donald E. Graves (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 1999).

15. Robert S. Quimby, The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study, 2 vols. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1997).

16. Philip Katcher and Bryan Fosten, The American War, 1812-1814 (London: Osprey, 1990).

17. Rene Chartrand, Uniforms and Equipment of the United States Forces in the War of 1812 (Youngstown, NY: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1992).

18. Rene Chartrand, Canadian Military Heritage, 3 vols. (Montreal: Art Global, 1993--).

19. Rene Chartrand and Gerry Embleton, British Forces in North America, 1793-1815 (London, Osprey Publishing: 1998).

20. Frank H. Winter, The First Golden Age of Rocketry: Congreve and Hale Rockets of the Nineteenth Century (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990).

21. Gilbert Collins, Guidebook to the Historic Sites of the War of 1812 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1998).

22. William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784-1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993).

23. William B. Skelton, High Army Leadership in the Era of the War of 1812: The Making and Remaking of the Officer Corps, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 51 (April 1994): 253-74.

24. John C. Fredriksen, Officers of the War of 1812 with Portraits and Anecdotes: The United States Army Left Division Gallery of Honor (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989).

25. Gerard T. Altoff, Amongst My Best Men: African-Americans and the War of 1812 (Put-in-Bay, OH: Perry Group, 1996).

26. J. C. A. Stagg, Soldiers in Peace and War: Comparative Perspectives on the Recruitment of the United States Army, 1802-1815, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 57 (January 2000): 79-120.

27. C. Edward Skeen, Citizen Soldiers in the War of 1812 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999).

28. Mark Pitcavage, Ropes of Sand: Territorial Militia, 1801-1812, Journal of the Early Republic 13 (Winter 1993): 481-500.

29. Michael A. Bellesiles, The Origins of Gun Culture in the United States, 1760-1865, Journal of American History 83 (April 1996): 425-55.

30. John S. D. Eisenhower, Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of General Winfield Scott (New York: Free Press, 1997).

31. Timothy D. Johnson, Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1998). Quotation from p. 64.

32. John Morris, Sword of the Border: Major General Jacob Brown, 1775-1828 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2000).

33. Wesley B. Turner, British Generals in the War of 1812: High Command in the Canadas (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999).

34. Stuart Sutherland, His Majesty's Gentlemen: A Directory of British Regular Army Officers of the War of 1812 ([Toronto]: Iser Publications, 2000). This work has been privately printed and is not widely available. It deserves a commercial press and much wider distribution.

35. George Sheppard, Plunder, Profits, and Paroles: A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994). Some Canadian scholars have challenged Sheppard's use of evidence in this work. See, for example, Turner, British Generals in the War of 1812, 120, 140, 194n.30, 197-98n.55.

36. William Gray, Soldiers of the King: The Upper Canadian Militia, 1812-1815 (Erin, ON: Boston Mills Press, 1995).

37. Luc Lepine, Les Officiers de Milice du Bas-Canada, 1812-1815 (Montreal: Societe Genealogique Canadienne-Francaise, 1996).

38. David Facey-Crowther, The New Brunswick Militia, 1787-1867 (Fredericton, New Brunswick: New Ireland Press and New Brunswick Historical Society, 1990).

39. Sandy Antal, A Wampum Denied: Procter's War of 1812 (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1997).

40. Bruce Bowlus, A 'Signal Victory': The Battle for Fort Stephenson, August 1-2, 1813, Northwest Ohio Quarterly 63 (Summer/Autumn 1991): 43-57.

41. Stuart A. Rammage, The Militia Stood Alone: Malcom's Mills, 6 November 1814 (Summerland, BC, 2000).

42. Michael A. Palmer, A Failure of Command, Control, and Communications: Oliver Hazard Perry and the Battle of Lake Erie, Journal of Erie Studies 17 (Fall 1988): 7-26.

43. Gerard T. Altoff, The Perry-Elliott Controversy, Northwest Ohio Quarterly 60 (Autumn 1988): 135-52. Two years later Lawrence J. Friedman and David Curtis Skaggs entered the debate, claiming that, contrary to popular belief, Elliott was not mentally unstable. See Jesse Duncan Elliott and the Battle of Lake Erie: The Issue of Mental Stability, Journal of the Early Republic 10 (Winter 1990): 493-516.

44. Frederick C. Drake, Artillery and Its Influence on Naval Tactics: Reflections on the Battle of Lake Erie, in William Jeffrey Welsh and David Curtis Skaggs, eds, War on the Great Lakes: Essays Commemorating the 175th Anniversary of the Battle of Lake Erie (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1991): 17-29.

45. Robert Malcomson and Thomas Malcomson, HMS Detroit: The Battle of Lake Erie (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990).

46. David Curtis Skaggs and Gerard T. Altoff, A Signal Victory: The Lake Erie Campaign, 1812-1813 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1997).

47. Gerard T. Altoff, Deep Water Sailors, Shallow Water Soldiers: Manning the United States Fleet on Lake Erie, 1813 (Put-in-Bay, OH: Perry Group, 1993).

48. Donald E. Graves, 'I have a handsome little army . . .': A Re-Examination of Winfield Scott's Camp at Buffalo in 1814, in R. Arthur Bowler, ed., War along the Niagara: Essays on the War of 1812 and Its Legacy (Youngstown, NY: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1991): 43-52.

49. Donald E. Graves, Red Coats & Grey Jackets: The Battle of Chippawa, 5 July 1814 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1994) and Where Right and Glory Lead! The Battle of Lundy's Lane, 1814, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 1997).

50. Graves also has adopted Charles Oman's simple but elegant solution for distinguishing between the numbered units of opposing armies. Numerals are used for British and Canadian forces (thus, 100th Regiment of Foot), while written numbers are employed for American forces (hence, Twenty-Fifth Infantry).

51. Joseph Whitehorne, While Washington Burned: The Battle for Fort Erie, 1814 (Baltimore: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company, 1992).

52. Susan Pfeiffer and Ronald F. Williamson, eds., Snake Hill: An Investigation of a Military Cemetery from the War of 1812 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991).

53. Paul Litt, Ronald F. Williamson, and Joseph W. A. Whitehorne, Death at Snake Hill: Secrets from a War of 1812 Cemetery (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1993).

54. J. C. A. Stagg, Between Black Rock and a Hard Place: Peter B. Porter's Plan for an American Invasion of Canada in 1812, Journal of the Early Republic 19 (Fall 1999): 385-422.

55. See C. Winton-Claire [R. C. Anderson], A Shipbuilder's War, in Morris Zaslow, ed., The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812 (Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada, 1964): 165-72.

56. Robert Malcomson, Lords of the Lake: The Naval War on Lake Ontario, 1812-1814 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998).

57. Robert Malcomson, HMS St Lawrence: The Freshwater First-Rate, Mariner's Mirror 83 (November 1997): 419-33.

58. Patrick A. Wilder, The Battle of Sackett's Harbour: 1813 (Baltimore: Nautical Aviation & Publishing Company, 1994). Wilder is working on a revision of this study.

59. Donald E. Graves, Field of Glory: The Battle of Crysler's Field, 1813 (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 1999).

60. David Fitz-Enz, The Final Invasion: The Decisive Battle of the War of 1812, Cooper Square Press, forthcoming.

61. Walter Lord, The Dawn's Early Light (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1972).

62. Joseph A. Whitehorne, The Battle for Baltimore, 1814 (Baltimore: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company, 1997).

63. Anthony S. Pitch, The Burning of Washington: The British Invasion of 1814 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1998).

64. James Pack, The Man Who Burned the White House: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772-1853 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1987).

65. Roger Morriss, Cockburn and the British Navy in Transition: Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 1772-1853 (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1997).

66. Arsene Lacarriere Latour, Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814-15, ed. Gene A. Smith, expanded edition (Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 1999).

67. Robert V. Remini, The Battle of New Orleans (New York: Viking, 1999).

68. Ibid., 199.

69. Tim Pickles, New Orleans, 1815: Andrew Jackson Crushes the British (Oxford, Eng.: Osprey Publishing, 1993).

70. Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1992).

71. John Sugden, Tecumseh: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997).

72. Robert S. Allen, His Majesty's Indian Allies: British Indian Policy in the Defence of Canada, 1774-1815 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1992).

73. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991). Quotation from p. xi.

74. Carl Benn, The Iroquois in the War of 1812 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).

75. Christopher Densmore, Red Jacket: Iroquois Diplomat and Orator (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1999).

76. Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins & Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993).

77. Benjamin W. Griffith, Jr., McIntosh and Weatherford, Creek Indian Leaders (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988).

78. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory's War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1996). Quotation from p. 18.

79. Robert Gardiner, ed., The Naval War of 1812 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999).

80. William S. Dudley et al., eds, The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History, 4 vols. (Washington: Naval Historical Center, 1985--).

81. Peter J. Kastor, Toward 'the Maritime War Only': The Question of Naval Mobilization, 1811-1812, Journal of Military History 61 (July 1997): 455-80.

82. Christopher McKee, A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession: The Creation of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps, 1794-1815 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991).

83. Harold D. Langley, A History of Medicine in the Early U.S. Navy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).

84. Seebert J. Goldowsky, Yankee Surgeon: The Life and Times of Usher Parsons (1788-1868) (Boston: Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine and Rhode Island Publications Society, 1988).

85. Spencer Tucker, Arming the Fleet: U.S. Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1989).

86. Spencer Tucker, The Jeffersonian Gunboat Navy. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993.

87. Gene A. Smith, For the Purposes of Defense: The Politics of the Jeffersonian Gunboat Program (Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 1995).

88. Stephen W. H. Duffy, Captain Blakeley and the Wasp: The Cruise of 1814 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000).

89. Frances Diane Robotti and James Vescovi, The USS Essex and the Birth of the American Navy (Holbrook, MA: Adams Media Corporation, 1999).

90. Tyrone G. Martin, A Most Fortunate Ship: A Narrative History of Old Ironsides, rev. ed. (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1997).

91. James Tertius de Kay, Chronicles of the Frigate Macedonian, 1809-1922. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995.

92. Ibid., 11.

93. James Tertius de Kay, The Battle of Stonington: Torpedoes, Submarines, and Rockets in the War of 1812 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990).

94. Gene A. Smith, Thomas ap Catesby Jones: Commodore of Manifest Destiny (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000).

95. Ira Dye, The Fatal Cruise of the Argus: Two Captains in the War of 1812 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1994).

96. Faye Margaret Kert, Prize and Prejudice: Privateering and Naval Prize in Atlantic Canada in the war of 1812 (St. Johns, Newfoundland: International Maritime Economic History Association, 1997). Quotation from p. 157.

97. Richard W. Winslow III, Wealth and Honour: Portsmouth during the Golden Age of Privateering, 1775-1815 (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1988).

98. Robin F. A. Fabel, Self-Help in Dartmoor: Black and White Prisoners in the War of 1812, Journal of the Early Republic 9 (Summer, 1989): 165-90.

99. British scholar Brian Jenkins calls the war the always peripheral American conflict. See Henry Goulburn, 1784-1856: A Political Biography (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996), 89.

100. There are some exceptions. In Injured Honor: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, June 27, 1807 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996), Spencer C. Tucker and Frank T. Reuter present the first book-length analysis of this episode in Anglo-American relations. Their description of the engagement and the ensuing American naval investigation is very good, but their diplomatic history is unreliable. In The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), Robert A. Rutland presents an even-handed but sympathetic view of Madison's wartime leadership. And in American Public Finance and Financial Services, 1700-1815 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), Edwin J. Perkins presents a refreshingly modern and astute re-assessment of American wartime finance. Perkins argues that the administration did much better in this area than is commonly thought, although he appears to have underestimated the seriousness of the financial crisis that beset the nation in the last months of the war, when the Treasury was so destitute of funds that it defaulted on the national debt, government paper was quoted at a substantial discount, and banks and government contractors refused to accept treasury notes.

101. The four sites are Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine in Baltimore, Maryland; Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial at Put-in-Bay, Ohio; Horseshoe Bend National Military Park at Daviston, Alabama; and John Lafitte National Historical Park, which includes Chalmette Battlefield and National Cemetery, in New Orleans, Louisiana. The total number of sites managed by the Park Service is 379.

102. David Nevin, 1812: A Novel (New York: Forge, 1996).

103. The journal is officially known as The Journal of the War of 1812 and the Era 1800 to 1840, though the cover carries the title Journal of the War of 1812.

104. The War of 1812 Website can be found at <http://www.militaryheritage.com/1812.htm>. Yale Law School's Avalon Project supports another web site that reproduces documents bearing principally on the war's diplomatic history. This site is located at <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/br1814m.htm>.

105. The Canadian army regularly offers tours of 1812 sites as part of the professional development of its officers just as American army officers regularly take part in staff rides of Civil War battlefields.

106. Arnie Gelbart, War of 1812 (Montreal: Galafilm, 1999), filmstrip.

107. Mark Starowicz, Canada: A People's History (Toronto: CBC/Radio-Canada, 2000-2002), filmstrip.

108. Bruce Carlin and David Fitz-Enz, The Final Invasion: The War of 1812 & the Battle of Plattsburgh, (Plattsburgh, NY: Cannonade Filmworks, 1999), filmstrip.

109. The most notable exception of a social history is George Sheppard's Plunder, Profits, and Paroles, cited in note 34 above.

110. Letter to the author, June 14, 2000.