ࡱ> ghfܥhc ek B>>>@~0X1LP(xxxxxxXGExPSxxxxxxLxxxxxxBl7ib*bxx&x Towards a theory of computer mediated instruction for African history Sarah Manyika University of California Graduate School of Education September, 1997 Introduction The potential of the computer as a vehicle for improving the quality of instruction in the humanities, particularly in college-level history, is not well understood. Currently in higher education, the computer is used mainly to support location- and time-independent communications between and among students and instructors. Computers are also employed as a means for giving students access to the World-Wide-Web (WWW), where they can search through important archival records, as well as scan contemporary information. These activities are very important but they alone do not produce more effective teaching and learning. To turn the computer into a device for instructional improvement requires more than just providing students with email accounts and access to the WWW. What is required is a coherent strategy for employing computers as devices for mediating instruction, learning and assessment. My belief is that computers can greatly enhance history instruction and that a theory of computer mediated instruction is needed to guide the process. The aim of this paper is to provide that theory. I build my arguments around the field of African history where I believe the potential of computer mediated instruction is particularly relevant. In order to achieve my objective I propose two necessary components. First, that computer-mediated instruction should be informed and guided by a well understood theory of instruction. Second, that the theory should be sensitive to the unique characteristics of African history. The theory of instruction that I chose to use as a guide is Bruners theory of instruction. I begin by discussing the merits of his theory and I then illustrate how the introduction of computers can greatly enhance the goals of his theory. In the second part of the paper I move on from the general discussion of computer mediated instruction to address the specific nature of the instructional subject, African history. I identify the unique characteristics of African history instruction within the American context, and I discuss ways in which computers can most effectively address instructional issues for African history. In the last section of the paper I bring Bruners theory of instruction together with the unique characteristics of African history and I propose what I consider to be key elements towards a theory of computer mediated instruction for African history. I conclude with an instructional example from African history to illustrate my theory. I. Theories of instruction and computers Much has been written on theories of learning but surprisingly little has been written on theories of instruction. A theory of learning only describes the learning process whereas a theory of instruction goes further than description to prescribe. Theories of instruction aim to set out the most effective way of achieving knowledge and skills. Bruner (1966) provides a good definition of instructional theory when he states, A theory of instruction, in short, is concerned with how what one wishes to teach can best be learned, with improving rather than describing learning (p.40). A theory of instruction is not just descriptive but prescriptive and normative in nature. Bruners theory of instruction, as outlined in his book, Toward a theory of instruction, serves as my model for a theory of instruction. There are other models of instruction but I have chosen Bruners model on the basis of its clarity and the cognitive and constructivist principles that inform it. Bruners theory of instruction Bruners approach to instruction is concerned with both incorporating mental processing and ensuring that the learner engages in authentic tasks and discovery-based learning. Bruner emphasizes the importance of meaning-centred instruction as opposed to instruction that is geared towards rote memorization. He was not the first to promote authentic based learning and discovery-based learning but he was a pioneer in bringing mental processing to instruction. The main features of Bruners theory of instruction (1966) are as follows: A theory of instruction should specify the experiences which most effectively implant in the individual a predisposition toward learning (p.40). By this, Bruner takes into account the learners background knowledge and prior experiences in order to maintain motivation, direction, and focus in the learning and development process. A theory of instruction must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner (p.41). Bruner emphasizes the need for structure to be flexible in order to work best with the status and gifts of the learner (p.41) To this end, Bruner refers to an optimal structure that can take different forms: enactive, iconic and symbolic. A theory of instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to present the materials to be learned (p.41). Bruner does not believe that sequencing should be limited to the linear or hierarchical. The most effective sequence, according to Bruner, must be directed by the nature of the instructional content and the students way of learning and understanding. A theory of instruction should specify the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments in the process of learning and teaching (p.41). Bruner considers feedback in all its complexity. Feedback can be extrinsic or intrinsic, immediate, or deferred. Bruners theory of instruction does not advocate a didactic teaching approach nor is its primary emphasis on instructional content. Rather than placing responsibility for success solely with the instructor the theory places significant responsibility with the learner. It takes into account individual differences and seeks to create environments that encourage students to build things for themselves. There is only one element that I believe to be inadequately addressed in Bruners theory of instruction and that is the social aspect of instruction. The social aspect of teaching and learning is something that I believe to be very important and will later stress in my model of computer mediated instruction for African history. The earliest cognitive scientist, John Dewey, emphasized this social element and in recent years others, such as Brown & Campione (1996), have emphasized the importance of the social nature of learning and teaching. Many have built on the important work of Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Bakhtin (1895-1978) who both viewed learning as a social process in which meaning is essentially acquired through dialogue and the process of social interaction. How instructional technology enhances and expands Bruners theory of instruction Although the cognitive science approach is now widely accepted as the best informing theory for instruction, it has taken quite some time for instructional design to reflect a cognitive science approach. Until the 1970s and 80s, most instructional design was informed by behaviourist theory. Initial instructional systems development (ISD) followed a Skinnerian behaviourist approach in which the main purpose of the computer was to facilitate the procedure of breaking tasks into small bits for the learner to respond to. However, in the 1970s and 80s, Computer Based Instruction (CBI) began to slowly take into account more of a cognitive science approach with emphasis on thinking and problem solving. These recent developments allow for an enhancement of Bruners theory of instruction. Many of Bruners instructional goals, particularly those that involve responding to students mental processing, are not easily achievable in a traditional classroom setting where the student-teacher ratio mitigates against one-on-one instruction. However, these goals can be more realistically achieved with the aid of computers. The development of Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI) systems has brought new ways of structuring and incorporating information in ways that enhance Bruners instructional principles. In particular, instructional technology now allows for the incorporating of schema theory which takes into account mental representation and mental processing. Instructional technology can also provide a new element to Bruners traditional theory of instruction by allowing instruction to take place outside of the strict confines of the classroom. Students can, for example, continue to discuss their work and receive feedback at their own pace without location and time restrictions. Out of the evolution in educational technology, one of the greatest benefits for higher education, has been the concept of computer-mediated communications (CMC). CMC supports time and location independent communications and in the form of email messaging it is especially important as a building block for greater social communication and interaction. Instructional technology therefore offers exciting possibilities for improved instructional results. In order for the benefits of computer mediated instruction to be realized however, two key elements must first be in place. First, and perhaps most obvious, is that there must be adequate access to the technology. Access to computers in American higher education is perhaps less of an issue than in other sectors of the educational system but must nevertheless be carefully considered. Second, in order for computers to be most beneficial in the instructional environment, they must be properly integrated into the instructional setting and not just tacked on. A theory of CMI should encourage a transformational approach to the use of computers as opposed to an incremental or bolted on approach to instruction. To summarize, the theory of instruction that I have chosen as a model for my own theory of computer mediated instruction is Bruners theory of instruction. Bruners theory of instruction is not only enhanced by the use of computers but it is expanded through the opportunities that computers provide. In the next section I discuss the unique characteristics of African history instruction and I examine the applicability of Bruners general theory of instruction in the light of the specifics of the subject matter. African history instruction Within the past three decades, important debates have occurred concerning the content of the history taught in American schools. The recent debates began in the 1960s with the rise of the new social historians. Social historians challenged the tradition of a history that focused on politics, institutions, and leaders. It introduced a history content that looked at the ordinary people (including women) and social history. Debate has continued through the 1990s with more recent debates between canonists and multiculturalists. Accompanying these debates, there have been significant methodological changes within the field of history. The methodological changes emphasize greater breadth in the types of historical sources used and a more investigative critical analysis approach to history sources. Both the shift in content and methodology have been important in advancing the study of African history. Challenges to the traditional history canon have resulted in African history being able to find a place within higher education history offerings in America. Unique instructional characteristics for African history I identify three salient characteristics of African history that have a primary influence over instruction in American higher education in American higher education. The characteristics are: The majority of written historical records on Africa have been written by Europeans and not Africans. As Vansina (1994) accurately states, . . . the activity of writing African history is the only case on such a scale dominated by outsiders . . . (p. 239). Most indigenous historical records are either in the form of artifacts or oral narratives, both of which are largely inaccessible to the American history student for geographical and linguistic reasons. Most American college students have very little prior knowledge of any African history. I shall now discuss these characteristics in greater detail and highlight the important instructional implications of each. African history - most has been written by Europeans The vast majority of African history has been written and recorded by Europeans. Indeed, Western education teaches that Europeans, not Africans, are the motive force in African history (Hawk, 1992. p.4). Even in African universities, as I discovered in my own research, the focus of African history curriculum is on European historians writing about Africa. Until recently, instruction was primarily based on these European narratives without an exploration of alternate historical records or a deep probing of the bias inherent in European authorship. Most of these foreign-authored documents focus on the political, economic, and institutional history and as a result, little can be learnt about African peoples and their social history through these narratives. Ironically, it is in fact the social and cultural history of Africa that is of greatest interest to American students. According to a recent survey that asked the following question, Within the field of African history, which type of history most appeals to you?, cultural history came first and social history came second. In addition, cultural presentations was most frequently indicated as the students preferred approach to the study of history. If African history instruction is to be responsive to student interests, such considerations should be used to help guide instructional content. It is also important that the instruction deals explicitly with the limitations of much of the traditional written narrative by uncovering biases and searching for less biased materials. Indigenous historical records are difficult to access In the absence of indigenous written historical records, the historical records that are of great importance in the study of African history are oral sources and historical artifacts. Although current history methodology does emphasize the use of multiple historical sources there is still sometimes an over-adherence to history textbooks and secondary resources. Where indigenous historical records can be accessed they should be encouraged for instructional use. However, what is often most problematic about indigenous African historical sources for the history student, is that most of these sources are not easily accessible. Few oral sources have been recorded and artifacts are not easily accessible over great geographic distances. In meeting the needs of this particular characteristic of African history, computers serve a vital role. Computer programs can break down problems of accessibility by transmitting images of artifacts and texts of transcribed oral narrations. This will be discussed in greater depth in the final section. The barrier to accessing indigenous records is however not simply geographical. There are language barriers to the understanding of indigenous records (both oral and written). Even when oral sources are available, they are often not translated into English. Oral records might be translated from the indigenous African language to the language of the former colonizer but this is not always English. And of course with each translation, more and more of the original is lost. Language skills are important in the study of African history as they allow for better examination and understanding of the texts. Surprisingly, in American higher education, the knowledge of other languages is often not required for the study of history. If language study is not required, there should at least be an instructional approach that is sensitive to the issues of language differences and meaning distortions that occur with translations. Little prior knowledge of African history in student body There is very little prior experience of African historical narratives in the American undergraduate student body and this is well illustrated in the recent survey of students and faculty of African history. When asked to describe their level of knowledge of African history prior to taking the course, predictably few replied Extensive. Forty eight percent replied so-so and forty nine percent replied almost nothing. Moreover, fewer than half of the student respondents (41%) were history majors. Given these statistics, it is clear that few American undergraduates know much, if anything, about African history. What prior knowledge students may have about Africa is often gleaned from American mass medias distortions and may well interfere with the learning process. Not all prior knowledge is beneficial to the learning process (Resnick, 1983) and this is certainly a key issue to be addressed in the instructional process. A theory of computer mediated instruction for African history must be sensitive to these three main characteristics. With these characteristics in mind I now examine my informing theory of instruction, Bruners theory of instruction, to assess its applicability to African history. Of these three unique characteristics of African history instruction, Bruners general theory of instruction addresses only one directly and that is the issue of student prior knowledge. The other main elements in Bruners theory are however, equally important to African history instruction. The element of carefully thought-through feedback is particularly important in African history as students come to grips with new content material and often highly controversial historical evidence. Structure and sequencing are also important elements in African history instruction. There are many ways to group historical narrative but what is essential is less how the knowledge is structured but how well the chosen structure ties in with the goals of instruction. Just as important as Bruners four key elements of instruction are the fundamental principles that form the basis of Bruners theory of instruction. These principles support instruction that is meaning centred rather than memory centred and an instructional environment in which the learner can construct her own knowledge. This is particularly relevant to the instructional approach for African history. The instructional emphasis for African history should be placed on a search for meaning and the building of interpretive and critical analytical skills. There is a place for historical fact and narrative but memorization of these facts and narrative should not be made the central concern of a study of African history particularly at the graduate level. What is more important is the building of cognitive abilities to use the facts in increasingly meaningful ways. Bruners continued emphasis on a theory of instruction that supports meaning over memory is most applicable to the study of African history. Now that I have explored the unique instructional characteristics of African history and examined them in the light of Bruners model of instruction, all that remains for a theory of computer mediated instruction for African history is to review how computers can effectively enhance African history instruction. In the next section I first examine the potential for computers in African instruction. I am then able to conclude with a theory of computer mediated instruction for African history. A theory of computer mediated instruction for African history Computers in History The use of computers in the field of history is still relatively young. Computers have traditionally been used mainly as a research tool for database management but they are now increasingly being used as a part of the instructional process. I identify five key areas in which computers offer the greatest potential for African history instruction. Allows for multiple representations of history The computers capacity for multiple representation offers many advantages and opportunities for African history instruction. First, it allows what were once inaccessible sources to be readily viewed. Texts and oral transcriptions when electronically formatted, can be accessed easily via computers. African artifacts, and images can be photographed and scanned for electronic transmission. The variety of representations enriches instruction and makes the history more tangible. The capability of multiple representation through the use of computers is well described in the following quotation taken from Munro & Hillis (1996). Not surprisingly, these powerful facilities [computers] have attracted the attention of many educators, not least, the historian. Here is the opportunity to create useful software which does not exclude the map, the old photograph, the newspaper page, the yellowing census document, or the advertisement of a long-forgotten product. Nor does it exclude the grainy archive film, the political speech or soundbite, or the taped reminiscences of the older members of the local community. All can be woven together to produce information rich tapestries which students can examine in the most minute detail. (p. 23) Such opportunities are particularly exciting in African history where so many of the elements mentioned in the preceding quotation are not easily accessible through traditional means of accessing information. Facilitates communication and emphasizes the social element In their networked form, computers can greatly enhance instruction. There are now numerous African web sites and listservs dedicated to African history discussions. Networked capabilities allow students and instructors to communicate on an individual basis at times that do not have to be restricted to the classroom. This communication facilitates the vital process of interpretation and analysis. Students can now correspond directly with people in the continent and/or the country that they are studying. Such direct contact makes the study of the history more tangible and enhances academic collaboration. Facilitates speed and efficiency in research Network capabilities greatly enhance data management and facilitate library catalogue searches. Written materials for African history are not numerous and as a result, enhanced library catalogue searches via the computer are invaluable in identifying where information resides and in accessing the material. Students in the US can, for example, now search for general information on the African collections available at the main British Library [Location: http://portico.bl.uk/africa/ ]. Facilitates interaction with primary sources Original texts and oral histories are easily transferred to the computer and this makes what used to be difficult to access, now relatively easy. CD-ROMs can be used for database storage and with good search facilities, can facilitate the research process. Potential for facilitating analytical exercises Searches of online materials can be used in many different ways to facilitate analytical exercises. By accessing online news reports for example, students can compare and contrast news stories on African news and analyze the discrepancies. Online discussion groups also offer multiple opportunities for analytical exercises through discussion. Such exercises may also lead to increased student responsibility for their own learning. These five areas provide clear illustrations of how computers can allow African history instruction to move closer to achieving its instructional goals. The use of computers in history instruction provides the final building block for my theory of computer mediated instruction for African history. A model of computer mediated instruction for African history The key features of a theory of computer mediated instruction for African history should include the following. First, it must specify the knowledge and developmental goals to be attained and the ways in which computers might facilitate this. Assessment procedures must be in line with the knowledge and developmental goals. Prior experiences must be taken into account when specifying developmental goals. Second, the theory must be contextually sensitive and speak to the environment in which it is most likely to be successful. The theory should define the role of the learner and the instructor and acknowledge that the instructional process goes beyond the classroom and that instruction is part of a social process. Third, a theory of computer mediated instruction must outline the optimal process of knowledge acquisition and student learning styles must be taken into account. Specifying knowledge and developmental goals Knowledge and developmental goals must be set and the computer should support these goals. As one historian suggests, Begin with an inventory of your strengths and weaknesses as a teacher and your educational objectives. Then look for software which complements or supplements your pedagogical style (Schick, 1990, p.150). Computers can, for example, be assigned low level cognitive tasks (e.g. map work on the Great Lakes region) or high level cognitive tasks (e.g. research on the media analysis of the former Zaire). In specifying the knowledge and development goals, the instructor must be clear on what constitutes learner prior experiences. How much is knowledge of historical stories/and how much consists of critical thinking skills? Prior experience should also include basic computer skills. Assessment must then be in line with the knowledge and development goals. Defining instructional environment With the inclusion of computers, an instructional environment goes beyond the classroom. Computers allow instruction to be time- and location-independent. Online discussions, for example, allow for class conversations to continue outside of the class. An example of how the instructional environment might be defined is as follows: Computers in the home or on campus to be used for historical research Computers in the classroom for group work and/or history simulations Computer in the classroom for instructor or class presenter Steps for optimal acquisition With knowledge and development goals established, steps can be outlined for optimal knowledge structure, sequencing and feedback. Computer programs offer a multiplicity of opportunities for enhanced structuring and sequencing of information that can be responsive to different learning styles. It is therefore important that the instructor think carefully about the sequence and structure that will best facilitate desired learning before designing and/or implementing software. Feedback is another area to be thought through. What sorts of feedback does the computer program provide and what might be added? How might the email function between instructor and student and student and student be used most effectively to reach the knowledge and development goals? These three basic steps should aid the history instructor to optimize computer use in instruction. This is a theory of computer mediated instruction that takes the computer past the bolt-on stage to a transformational stage whereby the full potential of computers in instruction can be reached. To better illustrate my theory, I provide an instructional example. The instruction takes into account the unique characteristics of African history instruction and it is informed by elements of Bruners theory of instruction. Instructional example The course content is the contemporary history of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The goal of the instruction is to get students to understand the recent twentieth century history of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The aim is for students to arrive at a good understanding of the political, economic and social conditions of the region and to think of solutions to current problems in the region. The approach is one that stresses the importance of meaning rather than memorization of the facts. Desired student outcomes follow recommendations from the historian, Peter Stearns. These desired student outcomes are: Ability to interpret and combine source materials Ability to deal with diverse interpretations of issues concerning society and culture Ability to mount arguments directed at analytical questions Ability to test models applied to social and cultural phenomena Ability to compare societies and cultures in order to enhance understanding (Stearns, 1996, p.27) Instruction begins with an assessment of students prior knowledge of African history and their basic computer skills. The instructional setting includes: Computers in the home or on campus to be used by students for historical research. A class listserv is established for students to engage in on-going discussions and peer and instructor feedback. A laptop and overhead projector in the classroom for the instructor or class presenter. The computer could, for example, be used to project images of maps that show the changing political landscapea landscape that once had no nation state boundaries, to one with colonial power delineations, to the present day nation state. The focus of the course is not on the famous or the leaders and nor is it constrained by the geographical borders of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Democratic Republic of Congo has relatively artificial geographical borders created recently as the result of colonialism. It makes more sense therefore to study the area known as the Great Lakes region for a deeper understanding of the diversity of the area and the reasons that explain the emergence of recent tensions in the region. The course structure is thematic, rather than chronological and the focus is on the following: - The peoples of the Great Lakes region, their belief systems, and organization of society - The nature of colonialism (Belgium in particular) and the changes it brought to the region - Forms of resistance to the colonial and post colonial powers - Modern day state in the context of modern day Africa Students are encouraged to draw comparisons with other historical examples in Africa and to engage in imaginative exercises in order to understand the history from multiple perspectives. In order to encourage students to understand the invention process of historical examples the focus of instruction is on who has written what and from what perspectives the history has been written. Questions are asked about why some historical stories may not have been written. An example of the latter could be the story of the CIAs involvement in the region and its role in maintaining Mobutus reign. The intention is to foster an ability to interpret and combine source materials and to deal with diverse interpretations. Alternate historical sources would include the examination of oral sources which would introduce more African voices to the historical discourse. In the case of the Democratic Republic of Congo, most of the documents are written in French. Students would be encouraged to examine these documents. Throughout the course, peer group feedback is encouraged in class and online for students to test each others analysis and arguments. At the end of the course, the instruction should be shown to match its initial goals and development aims. Future directions There are many areas in this field of African history and computers that are in need of further research. More study needs to be done in the field of history instruction and the ways in which computers can enhance history instruction. More study is also needed in the area of learning styles and the feedback needed in history instruction. In addition, an area for further research and development is that of encouraging digitization of African history materials. The potential is great but as yet, very little has been done. It is essential that Africans play a large role in this process so that the digitization of information does not follow the Eurocentric path of earlier African history texts. As more materials are provided in digital format, there will be an increased need for good software reviews to help instructors in their selection and implementation of educational technology programs. Courseware evaluation for multimedia products is still not readily available and this must be addressed so that instructors are better informed in their choice and use of educational software. Computers provide educators with tools to communicate internationally and these tools must be used to maximize their capabilities and to learn from international examples in the field. Conclusion The goal of this paper has been to develop a theory of computer mediated instruction that can be used to help guide the teaching of African history. Computer use has been limited in the field of African history instruction and has much further to go before the full potential of computers is reached. These are exciting times for historians but perhaps most exciting for young historians in Africa. In African today, a situation currently exists whereby a spiral has been set up: limited libraries means limited linkage of African scholarship to disciplinary literature, which in turn reduces the possibility of publication and therefore reinforces the centrality of western scholarship and the potential for mutual insularity (Guyer, 1996, p.20). Computers may provide the solution to such a devastating situation by giving more African historians access to scholarship and opportunities to publish online. In order to seize this opportunity, all historians of Africa must work together to ensure that the potential is reached. BIBLIOGRAPHY Appleby, J., Hunt, L., Jacob, M., (1995) Telling the truth about history. New York & London, W.W. Norton and Company. Booth A., Hyland P., (eds). (1996) History in higher education. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Brown, A.L., Campione, J.C., (1996) Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.) Innovations in learning: New environments for education (pp.289- 325). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bruner, J. (1963) The process of education. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1966) Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1986) Actual minds, possible worlds. London, Harvard Press. Bruner, J. (1996) The culture of education. Chapter 4, Teaching the present, past, and possible pp86-99. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. Burton, J. K., Moore, D. M., Magliaro, S. G. (1996) Behaviourism and instructional technology. Virginia Polytechnic Institute. In Jonassen, D. H., (Ed) Handbook for research in educational communications and technology. New York, Macmillan. Brown, A.L., Campione, J.C., (1996) Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.) Innovations in learning: New environments for education (pp.289- 325). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cuban, L. (1986) Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. New York and London, Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Gifford, B. R. (1996) Location: http://www.academic.com/ Greenstein, (1994) A historians guide to computing, Oxford University Press. Guyer, J. (1996) African Studies in the US - A perspective. An African Studies Occasional paper. Hawk, B.G, (Ed), (1992) Africas media image. New York, Praeger Publishers. Leinhardt, G., Beck, I. L., Stainton, C., (Eds), (1994) Teaching and learning history. Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Miller, M. M.& Stearns, P.N., (February 1995) Applying cognitive learning approaches in history teaching: An experiment in a world history course, The History Teacher Volume 28 # 2. Munro, R. K., Hillis, P. L. M., (Spring 1996) Bright ideas, creative people, teamwork, and money: Developing courseware for teaching Scottish history. In History Computer Review (pp.23-34). Preston (1996) Seminars for Active Learning In Booth A., Hyland P., (eds). History in higher education. (pp. 111-127) Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 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(1994) Living with Africa. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Wineburg, S. & Fournier, J. (1994) Contextualized thinking in history . In Carretero, M. & Voss, F. (eds), Cognitive and instructional processes in history and the social sciences. New Jersey, R. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Winn W., Snyder D., (1996) Chapter 5: Cognitive perspectives in psychology. University of Washington. In handbook for research in educational communications and technology. Jonassen, D. H., (Ed). New York, Macmillan.  Bruner, J. (1966) Toward a theory of instruction. The Belknap Press of Harvard. University Press Cambridge. Massachusetts  John Dewey (1859-1952) was writing about these approaches nearly a century earlier.  In later work Bruner does however acknowledges the important role of the social element in learning. In Actual Minds, Possible Worlds (1986) he makes this explicit. I have come increasingly to recognize that most learning in most settings is a communal activity, a sharing of the culture. It is not just that the child must make his knowledge his own, but that he must make it his own in a community of those who share his sense of culture. It is this that leads me to emphasize not only discovery and invention but the importance of negotiation and sharing. (p.127)  For a full disucssion of these debates see Applebee et al, (1995).  Vansina, J. (1994). Living with Africa. The University of Wisonsin Press  Manyika, S, November 1996, The Teaching of African history in African Universities, Zimbabwe, A case study. Conference paper given at Annual Conference of the Assoication of African Studies.  Professor Harmon, University of Pittsburg, Paper given at the African Studies Association, November 1996. Survey sample included 408 student respondents and 24 professor respondents from 23 American colleges and universities.  The choices were political, economic, social, cultural, military, religious, and ecological history, and famous individuals.  Professor Harmon, University of Pittsburg, Paper given at the African Studies Association, November 1996. Survey sample included 408 student respondents and 24 professor respondents from 23 American colleges and universities.  The most prominent oral historian on Africa is J. Vansina and he has done most of his work on a group in The Democratic Republic of Congo, the Baku. 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