A. INDIAN CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND MISSIONS

1. A plan for training Indian youth as teachers and missionaries to their people, 1763

Eleazar Wheelock, A Plain and Faithful Narrative of the Original Design, Rise, Progress and present State of the Indian Chanty-School at Lebanon, in Connecticut (Boston, 1763), pp. 9-29.

Wheelock (1711-1779), a Congregationalist minister, opened a school for Indians in 1754. Disappointed with the results of his work in Connecticut, he obtained a charter from Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire in 1769 and transferred the school to that colony where it became Dartmouth College.

Understanding there are numbers of religious and charitably disposed persons, who only wait to know where their charities may be bestowed in the best manner for the advancement of the kingdom of the great Redeemer; and supposing there may also be in some, evil surmisings about, and a disposition to discredit a cause which they don't love, and have no disposition to promote; I have, to gratify the one, and prevent the mischiefs of the other, thought it my duty to give the publick a short, plain, and faithful narrative of the original design, rise, progress, and present state of the Charity-School here, called Moor's Indian-Charity School, etc.

And as there were few or none who seemed so much to lay the necessity and importance

of the case to heart, as to exert themselves in earnest, and lead the way therein, I was naturally put upon consideration and enquiry what methods might have the greatest probability of success; and upon the whole was fully perswaded that this, which I have been pursuing, had by far the greatest probability of any that had been proposed, viz. by the mission of their own sons in conjunction with the English; and that a number of girls should also be instructed in whatever should be necessary to render them fit to perform the female part, as house-wives, school-mistresses, tayloresses, etc. and to go and be with these youth, when they shall be hundreds of miles distant from the English on the business of their mission: And prevent a necessity of their turning savage in their manner of living, for want of those who may do those offices for them, and by this means support the reputation of their mission, and also recommend to the savages a more rational and decent manner of living, than that which they are in _ and thereby, in time, remedy and remove that great, and hitherto insuperable difficulty, so constantly complained of by all

our missionaries among them, as the great impediment in the way to the success of their mission, viz. their continual rambling about; which they can't avoid so long as they depend so much upon fishing, fowling, and hunting for their support. And I am more and more perswaded, that I have sufficient and unanswerable reasons to justify this plan.

As,

1. The deep rooted prejudices they have so generally imbibed against the English, that they are selfish, and have secret designs to incroch upon their lands, or otherwise wrong them in

their interests. This jealousy seems to have been occasioned, nourished, and confirmed by some of their neighbours, who have got large tracts of their lands for a very inconsiderable part of their true value, and, it is commonly said, by taking the advantage of them when they were intoxicated with liquor. And also, by unrighteous dealers, who have taken such advantage to buy their skins and furrs at less than half price, etc. And perhaps these jealousies may be, not a little, increased by a conciousness of their own perfidy and inhumanity towards the English. And it seems there is no way to avoid the bad influence and effects of these prejudices, at present, unless it be by

the mission of their own sons . . .

2. An Indian missionary may be supported with less than half the expence, that will be

necessary to support an Englishman, who can't conform to their manner of living, and who will have no dependence upon them for any part of it. And an Indian who speaks their language, it may reasonably be supposed, will be at least four times as serviceable among them, supposing he be otherwise equally qualified as one who can communicate to or receive nothing from them, but by an interpreter: He may improve all opportunities not only in public, but, "when he sits in the house, walks by the way, when he lies down, and when he rises up:" And speak with as much life and spirit as the nature and importance of the matter require, which is very much lost when communicated by an interpreter.

3. Indian missionaries may be supposed better to understand the tempers and customs

of Indians, and more readily to conform to them in a thousand things than the English can; and in things wherein the nonconformity of the English may cause disgust, and be construed as the fruit of pride, and an evidence and expression of their scorn and disrespect.

4. The influence of their own sons among them will likely be much greater than of any

Englishman whatsoever. They will look upon such an one as one of them, his interest the same with theirs; and will naturally esteem him as an honour to their nation, and be more likely to submit patiently to his instructions and reproofs than to any English missionary . . .

5. The acquaintance and friendship which Indian boys from different and distant tribes and places, will contract and cultivate, while together at school, may, and if they are zealously affected will, be improved much for the advantage and furtherance of the design of their mission; while they send to, hear from, or visit one another, confirming the things which have been spoken . . .

6. Indian missionaries will not disdain to own English ones, who shall be associated with them (where the English can be introduced) as elder brethren; nor scorn to be advised or reproved, counselled or conducted by them; especially so long as they shall be so much dependent upon the English for their support; which will likely be till God has made them his people; and then, likely, they will not stand in such need of English guides and counsellors . . .

7. In this school, children of different nations may, and easily will learn one another's language, and English youth may learn of them; and so save the best expence and trouble of interpreters; and their ministry be much more acceptable and edifying to the Indians.

8. There is no such thing as sending English missionaries, or setting up and maintaining

English schools to any good purpose, in most places among them, as their temper, state and condition have been and still are ... There is no such thing at present as introducing either English schoolmasters or missionaries to continue with them; such are their prejudices in general, and such the malevolent, and ungovernable temper of some, that none but an Indian would dare venture his life among them.

And besides all this, they are so extremely poor, and depend so much upon hunting for a

livelihood, that they are in no capacity to support their children at school, if their disposition for it were ever so good.

9. There are very few or no interpreters, who are suitable and well-accomplished for the business, to be had . . . How many nations are there for whom there is no interpreter at all, except, it may be, some ignorant and perhaps vicious person, who has been their captive, and whom it is utterly unsafe to trust in matters of such eternal consequence. And how shall this difficulty be remedied? . . .

When, and as soon as the method proposed by the Rev'd. Mess. Sergeant and Brainerd,

can be put into execution, viz. to have land appropriated to the use of Indian schools, and prudent skilful farmers, or tradesmen, to lead and instruct the boys, and mistresses to instruct the girls in such manufactures as are proper for them, at certain hours, as a diversion from their school exercises, and the children taken quite away from their parents, and the pernicious influence of Indian examples, there may be some good prospect of great advantage by schools among them.

And must it be esteemed a wild imagination, if it be supposed that well-instructed, sober, religious Indians, may with special advantage be employed as masters and mistresses in such schools; and that the design will be much recommended to the Indians thereby; and that there may be special advantage by such, serving as occasional interpreters for visitors from different nations from time to time; and they hereby receive the fullest conviction of the sincerity of our intentions and be confirmed and established in friendly sentiments of us; and encouraged to send their children, etc.?

I am fully perswaded from the acquaintance I have had with them, it will be found, whenever the trial shall be made, to be very difficult if not impossible, unless the arm of the Lord

should be revealed in an eminent manner, to cure them of such savage and sordid practices, as they have been inured to from their mother's womb, and form their minds and manners to proper rules of virtue, decency and humanity, while they are daily under the pernicious influence of their parents example, and their many vices made familiar thereby.

10. I have found by experience, there may be a thorough and effectual exercise of government in such a school, and as severe as shall be necessary, without opposition from, or offence taken by, any . . .

11. We have the greatest security we can have, that when they are educated and fitted

for it, they will be employed in that business. There is no likelihood at all that they will, though ever so well qualified, get into business, either as school-masters or mistresses, among the English; at least till the credit of their nations be raised many degrees above what it is now, and consequently they can't be employed as will be honorable for them, or in any business they will be fit for, but among their own nation . . .

And there may also be admitted into this school, promising English youth of pregnant parts, and who from the best principles, and by the best motives, are inclined to devote themselves to that service; and who will naturally care for their state.

In such a school their studies may be directed with a special view to the design of their mission. Several parts of learning which have no great subserviency to it, and which will consume much time, may be less pursued, and others most necessary made their chief study. And they may not only learn the pagan languages, but will naturally get an understanding of their tempers, and many of their customs, which must needs be useful to missionaries. And instead of a delicate manner of living, they may by degrees, as their health will bear, enure themselves to such a way of living as will be most convenient for them to come into when on their mission.

And if the one half of the Indian boys thus educated shall prove good and useful men, there will be no reason to regret our toil and expence for the whole. And if God shall deny this blessing on our endeavours, as to the general design, it may be these particular youth may reap eternal advantage by what we do for them; and if but one in ten does so, we shall have no cause to think much of the expence. And if a blessing be denied to all, "we shall notwithstanding be unto God a sweet savour of Christ in them that perish."

2. A description of the Indian school in a letter of a Boston merchant, John Smith, May 18,1764

James D. McCallum, ed., The Letters of Eleazar Wheelock's Indians (Hanover, N.H.,1932),pp. 73-75.

In rideing last week to new London I turned some miles out of my way to see Mr. Wheelocks Indian School; nor do I repent my Trouble I had heard in general that it consisted of Twenty or more Indian Boys & Girls of the Mohawks & other Tribes of Indians And that a number of the Ministers of that Province had spoken well of Mr Wheelock & of this undertaking of his, But this I thought was seeing with the Eyes of others & therefore Chose to use my own.

I reached his House a little before the Evening Sacrifice & was movingly Touched on giveing out the Psalm to hear an Indian Youth set the Time & the others following him, & singing the Tenor, & Base, with remarkable Gravity & Seirousness, & tho' Mr Wheelock, The Schoolmaster & a minister from our Province (called as I was by Curiosity) joined in Praise; yet they unmoved seemed to have nothing to do but to sing to the Glory of God.

I omit Mr Wheelocks Prayer & pass to the Indians in the morning when on Ringing the School house Bell they Assemble at Mr Wheelocks House about 5 oClock with their Master; who named the Chapter in Course for the Day & called upon the near Indian who read 3 or 4 Versus till the Master said Proximus, & then the next Indian read some Verses & so on till all the Indians had read the whole chapter. After this Mr Wheelock Prayes And then they each Indian perse a Verse or two of the Chapter they had read. After this they entered Successively on Prosodia & then on Disputations on some Questions propounded by themselves in some of the Arts & Sciences. And it is really charming to see Indian Youths of Different Tribes & Languages in pure English reading the Word of God & speaking with Exactness & accuracy on points (either chosen by themselves or given out to them) in the Severall arts & Sciences, And especially to see this done with at Least a seeming Mixture of Obedience to God; a fillial Love & Reverence to Mr

Wheelock, & yet with great Ambittion to Excell each other And indeed in this Morning Exercies I saw a Youth Degraded one lower in the Class who before the Exercises were finished not only recovered his own place but was advanced two Higher.

I learnt hear that my surprize was common to ministers & other persons of Litterature who before me had been to visit this School or rather Colledge for I doubt whither in Colledges in General a better Education is to be expected & in mentioning this to a Gentleman in this Town who had visited this Seminary, He acquainted me that he intended at his own Charge to send his Son to obtain his Education in Mixture with these Indians. There were 4 or 5 of these Indians from 21 to 24 years of age who did not mix with the youth in these Exercies—These I learnt were Perfected in their Literature & stand ready to be sent among the Indians to keep Schools & occasionally to preach as doors open.

1. Indian children at worship in a New Mexico mission, 1773

Fray Joaquin de Jesus Ruiz, "The form of government used at the missions of San Diego de los Jimez and San Agustin de la Isleta," in Adolph F. A. Bandelier, ed., Historical Documents relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches Thereto, to 1773, III (Washington D C

1937),502-503.

The bell is rung at sunrise in summer, and in winter a little later; when the catechumens

gather in the churchyard each has his own place assigned to him, the fiscal endeavoring to see that they do not change their places, so that the father teacher may easily see if any are missing, and not delay the roll-call. The method for prayer is to put all the little ones, boys as well as girls, in front, separated from one another by a distance of half a vara, so that they cannot talk or amuse themselves with gestures that distract their attention. In the same way the larger girls are placed behind the children, with their faces uncovered, not being permitted to cover them with their shawls, for then they occupy themselves in chewing exquite, or in some other nasty habit that they practice. After them come the young men, in the same order as those first named. Two young cantors stand up with the catechism in their hands and begin the recitation in a loud voice, and all respond They recite first from the "Todo Fidel Christiano" as far as the "Credo," then from the "Salve" as far as the "Sacramentos," and then the explanation of the principal mysteries, closing each recitation with the angelical salutation and the "Alabado" of the Holy Trinity. At the

last the responsory is sung, accompanied by the tolling of the bell.

The cantor for the week repeats the prayer together with the sacristans, and the little serving girls with the fiscal for the week, in the same order as the catechism. When it is finished the father goes to eat his supper and send away the women cooks, not permitting them under any pretext to sleep in the convent, nor are they permitted to hold any intercourse with the sacristans and young men servants in the kitchen, but must treat them harshly, though without striking them, and when they offend they must be punished through the fiscal At the ringing of the Ave Marias these last repair to their cells and recite the angelical salutation When there is work to be done in the way of sweeping, white-washing, or any other task in the convent, they [the men and women] are not permitted to work together, for they do not behave as they ought, and from this come intrigues.

2. The birth and work of Indian children at the Mission of San Carlos, Monterey, 1801

Fermin Francisco de Lasuen, "Refutation of Charges, 1801," in Writings, II (Washington, D.C., 1965), 210-211.

Fray Fermin Francisco de Lasuen, the head of this Franciscan mission, replied in this document to charges of cruelty to the Indians and mismanagement brought against him by another priest. Lasuen was exonerated as the result of the ensuing investigation.

Knowing full well the inhuman crimes these Indian women so often commit, especially those who live between San Luis Obispo Mission and San Buenaventura, how they commit abortion and are guilty of suffocating their infants, we employ for their correction all the care and

vigilance, all the expedients, and all the diligence which a matter of such importance demands. I once heard a missionary say, in connection with this question, that in his mission the only service the expectant mother accomplishes in the course of five years is to add to the problems of the missionary. And, to tell the truth, if all the missions were taken into account, this would not be much of an exaggeration, for, during the entire period of pregnancy, during the year that follows the birth, and the two years more after that, whether or not the mother nurses the infant, when she settles down to work it is never far from her side, the same as if she were actually nursing it.

Then, either the child cries, or is made to cry, or it points with its finger to its head, or to its breast, or to some other part of the body to show that that's where it hurts; and so the mother quits working.

As regards the young boys and young girls: these are kept busy in a manner befitting their

age and sex. It is our aim that, as far as possible, as they grow older they may acquire an inclination towards work and not have such an aversion or repugnance for it as their parents. Everyone knows that idleness is the most fruitful source of lawlessness and crime; that a child can be taught easily and without compulsion to grow accustomed to work; and that he can grow to like what he has grown accustomed to; and that this liking can increase with the years. We have long known, and experience has strengthened our knowledge, that if anyone spends his childhood, and consequently his youth, in idleness and indolence he will find it morally impossible to feel inclined to work.