A. EDUCATION IN THE LATE COLONIAL PERIOD

In the latter half of the eighteenth century private academies appeared in some of the more densely settled parts of the colonies. Although they by no means rejected the preparation of boys for college, they usually enlarged the curriculum to include useful subjects that would prepare students for commerce and other business pursuits.

1. Benjamin Franklin proposes an academy

Benjamin Franklin, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania (Philadelphia, 1749), in Leonard W. Labaree et al., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, III (New Haven, 1961),399-419.

Among his many projects advance the public welfare, Franklin was instrumental in the establishment of an academy in Philadelphia. This essay became the most influential statement in behalf of these new schools. Most of Franklin's notes, containing lengthy quotations from authorities, have been omitted.

The good Education of Youth has been esteemed by wise Men in all Ages, as the surest Foundation of the Happiness both of private Families and of Common-wealths. Almost all Governments have therefore made it a principal Object of their Attention, to establish and endow with proper Revenues, such Seminaries of Learning, as might supply the succeeding Age with Men qualified to serve the Publick with Honour to themselves, and to their Country.

Many of the first Settlers of these Provinces, were Men who had received a good Education in Europe, and to their Wisdom and good Management we owe much of our present Prosperity. But their Hands were full, and they could not do all Things. The present Race are not thought to be generally of equal Ability: For though the American Youth are allow'd not to want Capacity; yet the best Capacities require Cultivation, it being truly with them, as with the best Ground, which unless well tilled and sowed with profitable Seed, produces only ranker Weeds.

That we may obtain the Advantages arising from an Increase of Knowledge, and prevent as much as may be the mischievous Consequences that would attend a general Ignorance among us, the following Hints are offered towards forming a Plan for the Education of the Youth of Pennsylvania, viz.

It is propos'd,

THAT some Persons of Leisure and publick Spirit, apply for a CHARTER, by which they may be incorporated, with Power to erect an ACADEMY for the Education of Youth, to govern the same, provide Masters, make Rules, receive Donations, purchase Lands, &c. and to add to their Number, from Time to Time such other Persons as they shall judge suitable.

That the Members of the Corporation make it their Pleasure, and in some Degree their Business, to visit the Academy often, encourage and countenance the Youth, countenance and assist the Masters, and by all Means in their Power advance the Usefulness and Reputation of the Design; that they look on the Students as in some Sort their Children, treat them with Familiarity and Affection, and when they have behav'd well, and gone through their Studies, and are to enter the World, zealously unite, and make all the Interest that can be made to establish them,[1a] whether in Business. Offices, Marriages, or any other Thing for their Advantage preferably to all other Persons whatsoever even of equal Merit.

That a House be provided for the ACADEMY, if not in the Town, not many Miles from it; the Situation high and dry, and if it may be, not far from a River, having a Garden, Orchard, Meadow, and a Field or two.

That the House be furnished with a Library (if in the Country, if in the Town, the Town Libraries may serve) with Maps of all Countries, Globes, some mathematical Instruments, an Apparatus for Experiments in Natural Phlosophy, and for Mechanics; Prints, of all Kinds, Prospects, Buildings, Machines, &c.

That the RECTOR be a Man of good Understanding, good Morals, diligent and patient, learn'd in the Languages and Sciences, and a correct pure Speaker and Writer of the English Tongue; to have such Tutors under him as shall be necessary.

That the boarding Scholars diet together, plainly, temperately, and frugally.

That to keep them in Health, and to strengthen and render active their Bodies, they be frequently exercis'd in Running, Leaping, Wrestling, and Swimming, &c.

That they have peculiar Habits to distinguish them from other Youth, if the Academy be in or near the Town; for this, among other Reasons, that their Behaviour may be the better observed.

As to their STUDIES, it would be well if they could be taught every Thing that is useful, and every Thing that is ornamental: But Art is long, and their Time is short. It is therefore propos'd that they learn those Things that are likely to be most useful and most ornamental, Regard being had to the several Professions for which they are intended.

All should be taught to write a fair Hand, and swift, as that is useful to All. And with it may be learnt something of Drawing, by Imitation of Prints, and some of the first Principles of Perspective.

Arithmetick, Accounts, and some of the first Principles of Geometry and Astronomy.

The English Language might be taught by Grammar; in which some of our best Writers, as Tillotson, Addison, Pope, Algernon Sidney, Cato's Letters, &c. should be Classicks: The Stiles principally to be cultivated, being the clear and the concise. Reading should also be taught, and pronouncing, properly, distinctly, emphatically; not with an even Tone, which under-does, nor a theatrical, which over-does Nature.

To form their Stile, they should be put on Writing Letters to each other, making Abstracts of what they read; or writing the same Things in their own Words; telling or writing Stories lately read, in their own Expressions. All to be revis'd and corrected by the Tutor, who should give his Reasons, explain the Force and Import of Words, &c.

To form their Pronunciation, they may be put on making Declamations, repeating Speeches, delivering Orations, &c. The Tutor assisting at the Rehearsals, teaching, advising, correcting their Accent, &c.

But if HISTORY be made a constant Part of their Reading, such as the Translations of the Greek and Roman Historians, and the modern Histories of antient Greece and Rome, &c. may not almost all Kinds of useful Knowledge be that Way introduc'd to Advantage, and with Pleasure to the Student? As

GEOGRAPHY, by reading with Maps, and being required to point out the Places where the greatest Actions were done, to give their old and new Names, with the Bounds, Situation, Extent of the Countries concern'd, &c.

CHRONOLOGY, by the Help of Helvicus [1b] or some other Writer of the Kind, who will enable them to tell when those Events happened; what Princes were Contemporaries, what States or famous Men fiourish'd about that Time, &c. The several principal Epochas to be first well fix'd in their Memories.

ANTIENT CUSTOMS, religious and civil, being frequently mentioned in History, will give Occasion for explaining them; in which the Prints of Medals, Basso Relievo's, and antient Monuments will greatly assist.

MORALITY, by descanting and making continual Observations on the Causes of the Rise or Fall of any Man's Character, Fortune, Power, &c. mention'd in History; the Advantages of Temperance, Order, Frugality, Industry, Per- severance, &c. &c. Indeed the general natural Tendency of Reading good History, must be, to fix in the Minds of Youth deep Impressions of the Beauty and Usefulness of Virtue of all Kinds, Publick Spirit, Fortitude, &c.

History will show the wonderful Effects of ORATORY, in governing, turning and leading great Bodies of Mankind, Armies, Cities, Nations. When the Minds of Youth are struck with Admiration at this, then is the Time to give them the Principles of that Art, which they will study with Taste and Application. Then they may be made acquainted with the best Models among the Antients, their Beauties being particularly pointed out to them. Modern Political Oratory being chiefly performed by the Pen and Press, its Advantages over the Antient in some Respects are to be shown; as that its Effects are more extensive, more lasting, &c.

History will also afford frequent Opportunities of showing the Necessity of a Publick Religion, from its Usefulness to the Publick; the Advantage of a Religious Character among private Persons; the Mischiefs of Superstition, &c. and the Excellency of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION above all others antient or modern.

History will also give Occasion to expatiate on the Advantage of Civil Orders and Constitutions, how Men and their Properties are protected by joining in Societies and establishing Government; their Industry encouraged and rewarded, Arts invented, and Life made more comfortable: The Advantages of Liberty, Mischiefs of Licentiousness, Benefits arising from good Laws and a due Execution of Justice, &c. Thus may the first Principles of sound Politicks be fix'd in the Minds of Youth.

On Historical Occasions, Questions of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice, will naturally arise, and may be put to Youth, which they may debate in Conversation and in Writing. When they ardently desire Victory, for the Sake of the Praise attending it, they will begin to feel the Want, and be sensible of the Use of Logic, or the Art of Reasoning to discover Truth, and of Arguing to defend it, and convince Adversaries. This would be the Time to acquaint them with the Principles of that Art. Grotius, Puffendorff, and some other Writers of the same Kind, may be used on these Occasions to decide their Disputes. Publick Disputes warm the Imagination, whet the Industry, and strengthen the natural Abilities.

With the History of Men, Times and Nations, should be read at proper Hours or Days, some of the best Histories of Nature, which would not only be delightful to Youth, and furnish them with Matter for their Letters, &c. as well as other History; but afterwards of great Use to them, whether they are Merchants,

Handicrafts, or Divines; enabling the first the better to understand many Commodities, Drugs, &c. the second to improve his Trade or Handicraft by new Mixtures, Materials, &c. and the last to adorn his Discourses by beautiful Compari- sons, and strengthen them by new Proofs of Divine Providence. The Conversation of all will be improved by it, as Occasions frequently occur of making Natural Observations, which are instructive, agreeable, and entertaining in almost all Companies. Natural History will also afford Opportunities of introducing many Observations, relating to the Preservation of Health, which may be afterwards of great Use. Arbuthnot on Air and Ailment, Sanctorius on Perspiration, Lemery on Foods, [1c] and some others, may now be read, and a very little Explanation will make them sufficiently intelligible to Youth.

While they are reading Natural History, might not a little Gardening, Planting, Grafting, Inoculating, &c. be taught and practised; and now and then Excursions made to the neighbouring Plantations of the best Farmers, their Methods observ'd and reason'd upon for the Information of Youth. The Improvement of Agriculture being useful to all, and Skill in it no Disparagement to any.

The History of Commerce, of the Invention of Arts, Rise of Manufactures, Progress of Trade, Change of its Seats, with the Reasons, Causes, &c. may also be made entertaining to Youth, and will be useful to all. And this, with the Accounts in other History of the prodigious Force and Effect of Engines and Machines used in War, will naturally introduce a Desire to be instructed in Mechanicks, [1d] and to be inform'd of the Principles of that Art by which weak Men perform such Wonders, Labour is sav'd, Manufactures expedited, &C. &c. This will be the Time to show them Prints of antient and modern Machines, to explain them, to let them be copied, [1e] and to give Lectures in Mechanical Philosophy.

With the whole should be constantly inculcated and cultivated, that Benignity of Mind, which shows itself in searching for and seizing every Opportunity to serve and to oblige; and is the Foundation of what is called GOOD BREEDING; highly useful to the Possessor, and most agreeable to all.

The Idea of what is true Merit, should also be often presented to Youth, explain'd and impress'd on their Minds, as consisting in an Inclination join'd with an Ability to serve Mankind, one's Country, Friends and Family; which Ability is (with the Blessing of God) to be acquir'd or greatly encreas'd by true Learning, and should indeed be the great Aim and End of all Learning.

1a Something seems wanting in America to incite and stimulate Youth to Study. In Europe the Encouragements to Learning are of themselves much greater than can be given here. Whoever distinguisbes himself there, in either of the three learned Professions, gains Fame, and often Wealth and Power: A poor Man's Son has a Chance, if he studies hard, to rise, either in the Law or the Church, to gainful Offices or Benefices; to an extraordinary Pitch of Grandeur; to have a Voice in Parliament, a Seat among the Peers; as a Statesman or first Minister to govern Nations, and even to mix his Blood with Princes. [Franklin's note.]

1b Christophorus Helvicus, The Historical and Chronological Theatre (London, 1687). [Editor's note in Papers of Benjamin Franklin.]

1c. John Arbuthnot, An Essay concerning the Effects of Air on Human Bodies (London, 1733), and An Essay concerning the Nature of Aliments (2 vols., London, 1731-32); Medicina Statica: being the Aphorisms of Sanctorius (London, 1712); and Louis Lemery, Traite des Aliments (Paris, 1702). [Editor's note in Papers of Benjamin Franklin.]

1d. How many Mills are built and Machines constructed, at great and fruitless Expence, which a little Knowledge in the Principles of Mechanics would have prevented? [Franklin’s note.]

1e. We are often told in the Journals of Travellers, that such and such Things are done in foreign Countries, by which Labour is sav'd, and Manufactures expedited, &c. but their Description of the Machines or Instruments used, are quite unintelligible for want of good Drafts. Copying Prints of Machines is of Use to fix the Attention on the several Parts, their Proportions, Reasons, Effects, &c. A Man that has been us'd to this Practice, is not only better able to make a Draft when the Machine is before him, but takes so much better Notice of its Appearance, that he can carry it off by Memory when he has not the Opportunity of Drawing it on the Spot. Thus may a Traveller bring home Things of great Use to his Country. [Franklin's note.]

2. Franklin's appeal to the Philadelphia Common Council for support of the Academy, July 31, 1750

The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, IV (1961),34-37.

The academy, having secured some public support, opened in 1751. The University of Pennsylvania developed from this foundation.

The Trustees of the Academy have already laid out near £ 800, in the Purchase of the Building, and will probably expend near as much more in fitting up Rooms for the Schools, and furnishing them with proper Books and Instruments for the Instruction of Youth.

The greatest Part of the Money paid and to be paid, is subscribed by the Trustees themselves, and advanced by them; many of whom have no Children of their own to educate, but act from a View to the Public Good, without Regard to Sect or Party. And they have engaged to open a Charity School within two Years for the Instruction of Poor Children gratis, in Reading, Writing and Arithmetick, and the first Principles of Virtue and Piety.

The Benefits expected from this Institution are,

1. That the Youth of Pensilvania may have an Opportunity of receiving a good Education at home, and be under no Necessity of going abroad for it; whereby not only a considerable Expence may be saved to the Country, but a stricter Eye may be had over their Morals by their Friends and Relations.

2. That a Number of our Natives will hereby be qualified to bear Magistracies, and execute other public Offices of Trust, with Reputation to themselves and Country; there being at present great Want of Persons so qualified in the several Counties of this Province. And this is the more necessary now to be provided for by the English here, as vast Numbers of Foreign- ers are yearly imported among us, totally ignorant of our Laws, Customs, and Language.

3. That a Number of the poorer Sort will hereby be qualified to act as Schoolmasters in the Country, to teach Children Reading, Writing, Arithmetick, and the Grammar of their Mother Tongue; and being of good Morals and known Characters, may be recommended from the Academy to Country Schools for that Purpose; The Country suffering at present very much for want of good Schoolmasters, and oblig'd frequently to employ in their Schools, vicious imported Servants, or concealed Papists, who by their bad Examples and Instructions often deprave the Morals or corrupt the Principles of the Children under their Care.

4. It is thought that a good Academy erected in Philadelphia, a healthy Place, where Pro- visions are plenty, situated in the Center of the Colonies, may draw Numbers of Students from the Neighbouring Provinces, who must spend considerable Sums yearly among us, in Payment for their Lodging, Diet, Apparel &c. which will be an Advantage to our Traders, Artisans, and Owners of Houses and Lands. This Advantage is so considerable, that it has been frequently observed in Europe, that the fixing a good School or College in a little inland Village, has been the Means of making it a great Town in a few Years; And therefore the Magistrates of many Places, have offer'd and given great yearly Salaries, to draw learned Instructors from other Countries" to their respective" Towns, merely with a View to the Interest of the Inhabitants.

Numbers of People have already generously subscribed considerable Sums to carryon this Undertaking; but others, well disposed, are somewhat discouraged from contributing, by an Apprehension lest when the first Subscriptions are expended, the Design should drop. The great Expence of such a Work is in the Beginning: If the Academy be once well-open'd, good Masters provided, and good Orders established, there is Reason to believe (from many former Examples in other Countries) that it will be able after a few Years, to support it self. Some Assistance from the Corporation is immediately wanted and hoped for; and it is thought that if this Board, which is a perpetual Body, take the Academy under their Patronage, and afford it some Encouragement, it will greatly strengthen the Hands of all concern'd, and be a Means of Establishing this good Work, and continuing the good Effects of it down to our late Posterity.

3. Sample advertisements for private schools in Boston newspapers in 1751 and 1754

Robert F. Seybolt, The Private Schools of Colonial Boston (Cambridge, Mass., 1935), pp. 34-35, 37-38.

Private instruction in practical subjects, readily available in the cities, supplemented both the grammar schools and the new academies.

ALL MANNER OF INSTRUMENTS in Writing, and Conveyances in the Law, now in Use and Practice, are carefully drawn and ingross'd. Also young Gentlemen and Ladies may be boarded and educated, and taught English, Writing and Arithmetick, both Vulgar and Decimal; with several other Branches of the Mathematicks, after a very easy and concise Method.

By George Suckling.

Also young Ladies may be taught plain Work, Dresden, Point (or Lace) Work for Child Bed Linnen, Cross stitch, Tentstitch, and all other Sorts of Needle Work.

By Bridget Suckling.

IN NEW-BOSTON near the Meeting-House are Taught these Mathematical Sciences, viz. Arithmetic, Geometry, Trigonometry, Navigation, Astronomy, Projections of the Sphere, useful Problems in Geography, the use of the plain Scale, Gunter and sliding Gunter and Sector in measuring Superficies and Solids, &c. &c. by Capt. George Mackay. N.B. Young Gentlemen boarded.

AT THE WIDOW ROBINS'S at the North-End, near Mr Gledden's Ship-Yard, is kept a School by JOHN LEACH, from LONDON, who teaches the following Branches, viz. Arithmetick, common, vulgar and decimal; Geometry, Trigonometry; Navigation and Journal keeping in a practical Method; either with all kinds of Books and Instruments in use, or without any; from several Years Experience in His Majesty's Service and three Voyages in the Hon. East-India Company's: - Mensuration of Superficies, Solids, Heights and Distances both accessible and inaccessible; - Gauging, either with or without the Callipars; - Surveying, with or without the Theodolite: Also, Drawing, as far as it is useful for a compleat Sea-Artist, as it respects taking Prospects of Land and surveying Harbours, &c. &c. With the Use and Construction of each Instrument us'd in the above Science. N.B. He keeps an Evening School from 6 to 9 P.M. during the Winter Season. - Also, surveys Land, draws Plans, &c.

4. A formal statement of the objectives of private academies as set out by Samuel and John Phillips, founders of Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, 1778

The Constitution of Phillips Academy in Andover (Andover, 1828), pp. 3-4, 8-12.

A SHORT reflection upon the grand design of the great PARENT OF THE UNIVERSE in the creation of mankind, and the improvements, of which the mind is capable, both in knowledge and virtue as well, as upon the prevalence of ignorance and vice, disorder and wickedness, and upon the direct tendency and certain issue of such a course of things, must occasion, in a thoughtful mind, an earnest solicitude to find the source of these evils and their remedy; and a small acquaintance with the qualities of young minds - how susceptible and tenacious they are of impressions, evidences that YOUTH is the important period, on the improvement or neglect of which depend the most important consequences to individuals themselves and the community.

A serious consideration of the premises, and an observation of the growing neglect of YOUTH, have excited in us a painful anxiety for the event, and determined us to make, in the following Conveyance, a humble dedication to our HEAVENLY BENEFACTOR of the ability, wherewith he hath blessed us, to lay the foundation of a public free SCHOOL or ACADEMY for the purpose of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Grammar, Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences, wherein they are commonly taught; but more especially to learn them the GREAT END AND REAL BUSINESS OF LIVING.

Earnestly wishing that this Institution may grow and flourish; that the advantages of it may be extensive and lasting; that its usefulness may be so manifest, as to lead the way to other establishments on the same principles; and that it may finally prove an eminent means of advancing the Interest of the great REDEEMER, to His patronage and blessing we humbly commit it.

No person shall be chosen, as a principal Instructor, unless a professor of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION, of exemplary manners, of good natural abilities and literary acquirements, of a good acquaintance with human nature, of a natural aptitude for instruction and government; and, in the appointment of any Instructor, regard shall be had to qualifications only, without preference of kindred or friend, place of birth, education, or residence.

It shall be ever considered, as the first and principal duty of the Master, to regulate the tempers, to enlarge the minds, and form the Morals of the Youth, committed to his care.

There shall be taught in this Seminary the English, Latin, and Greek Languages, Writing, Arithmetic, Music, and the Art of Speaking; also practical Geometry, Logic, and any other of the liberal Arts and Sciences, or Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct.

The Master is to give special attention to the health of the Scholars, and over to urge the importance of a habit of Industry. For these purposes it is to be a part of his duty, to encourage the Scholars to perform some manual labor, such as gardening, or the like; so far as it is consistent with cleanliness and the inclination of their parents; and the fruit of their labor shall be applied, at the discretion of the TRUSTEES, for procuring a Library, or in some other way increasing the usefulness of this Seminary.

But, above all, it is expected, that the Master's attention to the disposition of the Minds and Morals of the Youth, under his charge, will exceed every other care; well considering that, though goodness without knowledge (as it respects others) is weak and feeble; yet knowledge without goodness is dangerous; and that both united form the noblest character, and lay the surest foundation of usefulness to mankind.

It is therefore required, that he most attentively and vigorously guard against the earliest irregularities; that he frequently delineate, in their natural colours, the deformity and odiousness of vice, and the beauty and amiableness of virtue; that he spare no pains, to convince them of their numberless and indispensable obligations to abhor and avoid the former, and to love and practise the latter; of the several great duties, they owe to GOD, their country, their parents, their neighbour, and themselves; that he critically and constantly observe the variety of their natural tempers, and solicitously endeavour to bring them under such discipline, as may tend most effectually to promote their own satisfaction and the happiness of others; that he early inure them to contemplate the several connexions and various scenes, incident to human life; furnishing such general maxims of conduct, as may best enable them to pass through all with ease, reputation, and comfort.

And, whereas many of the Students in this Seminary may be devoted to the sacred work of the gospel ministry; that the true and fundamental principles of the Christian Religion may be cultivated, established, and perpetuated in the Christian Church, so far, as this Institution may have influence; it shall be the duty of the Master, as the age and capacities of the Scholars will admit, not only to instruct and establish them in the truth of Christianity; but also early and diligently to inculcate upon them the great and important scripture doctrines of the existence of One true GOD, the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST; of the fall of man, the depravity of human nature; the necessity of an atonement, and of our being renewed in the spirit of our minds; the doctrines of repentance toward God and of faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ; of sanctification by the Holy Spirit, and of justification by the free grace of God, through the redemption, that is in Jesus Christ (in opposition to the erroneous and dangerous doctrine of justification by our own merit, or a dependence on self righteousness) together with the other important doctrines and duties of our HOLY CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

And, whereas the most wholesome precepts, without frequent repetition, may prove ineffectual; it is farther required of the Master, that he not only urge and reurge; but continue from day to day, to impress these instructions.

And let him ever remember that the design of this Institution can never be answered, without his persevering, incessant attention to this duty.

Protestants only shall ever be concerned in the TRUST or Instruction of this Seminary.

This Seminary shall be ever equally open to Youth, of requisite qualifications, from every quarter; provided, that none be admitted, till in common parlence they can read English well, excepting such particular numbers, as the TRUSTEES may hereafter license.

And, in order to prevent the smallest perversion of the true intent of this Foundation, it is again declared, that the first and principal object of this Institution is the promotion of true PIETY and VIRTUE; the second, instruction in the English, Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing, Arithmetic, Music, and the Art of Speaking; the third, practical Geometry, Logic, and Geography; and the fourth, such other of the liberal Arts and Sciences or Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct. And these Regulations shall be read by the President, at the annual meetings of the TRUSTEES.

Anthony Benezet, Some Serious and Awful Considerations, recommended to All, particularly the Youth… (Philadelphia, [1769]), pp. 2-3.

Trying to maintain a distinctive religious perspective, Quaker schoolmasters warned against the encroachment of worldly motives on the ultimate spiritual purpose of education. The Friends maintained schools for their own children to which they admitted children of the poor and, in some instances, Negroes.

Benezet (1713-1784), born in France, came to Philadelphia in 1731, where he taught at the Friends' English Public School and, in 1755, opened a girls' school. A prolific writer, he was influential in movements promoting education and the amelioration of the condition of Negro slaves.

All that has been said by the greatest saints and dying men, when the fullest of light and divine knowledge, of the necessity of piety, of the excellency of virtue, of our duty to God, of the vanity of worldly enjoyments; and all the maxims of the wisest philosophers, when in their highest state of wisdom, are proper objects of meditation for the serious minded, and ought, particularly, to constitute the daily lessons of youthful minds. Such was the education of the youth who attended Plato and Socrates; their every day's instruction were so many lectures upon the nature of man, his true end, and the right use of his faculties. Now as Christianity has set every thing that is reasonable, wise, holy and desirable, in its true point of light, so it might well be expected, that the education of the youth should be as much bettered and amended by Christianity, as the faith and doctrines of religion are. But, alas, our modern education is not of this kind, whatever way of life we intend the youth for, we apply to the fire of their minds, and exhort them to improvement from corrupt motives. We generally stir them to action from principles of covetousness, or a desire of distinction, that they may accumulate wealth, excel others, and shine in the eyes of the world. We repeat and inculcate these motives upon them, till they think it a part of their duty to make gain and worldly distinction the chief object of their desire. That this is generally the nature of the education of our sons, is too plain to need any proof. And it is much to be lamented that our daughters whose right education is of the utmost importance to human life, should not only be brought up in pride, but in the lowest and most contemptible part of it; such as a fondness for their persons, a desire of beauty , and a love of dress; and indeed almost every thing they meet with seems to conspire to make them think of little else. And after all this we complain of the pernicious effects that pride and covetousness have in the world; we wonder to see grown persons actuated and govern’d by these pernicious principles, not considering that they were all the time of their youth called upon to form their actions and industry upon the same principles. An education under Plato and Socrates had no other end, but to teach youth to think, judge, act and follow such rules of life as Plato and Socrates used, and is it not our indispensable duty to use out best endeavour that the end of a Christian education, may be to teach our youth how to think and judge, and act, and live agreeable to the precepts and practice of out blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.

1. A teacher advertises for students in the Virginia Gazette, November 17, 1752

Edgar W. Knight, ed., A Documentary History of Education in the South, I (Chapel Hill, 1949), 655-656.

JOHN WALKER,

Lately arriv'd in Williamsburg from London, and who for ten Years past has been engag'd in the Education of Youth, undertakes to instruct young Gentlemen in Reading, Writing, Arithmetick, the most material Branches of Classical Learning, and ancient and modern Geography and History; but, as the noblest End of Erudition and Human Attainments, he will exert his principal Endeavours to improve their Morals, in Proportion to their Progress in Learning, that no Parent may repent his Choice in trusting him with the Education of his Children.

Mrs. Walker, likewise, teaches young Ladies all Kinds of Needle Work; makes Capuchins, Shades, Hats, and Bonnets; and will endeavour to give Satisfaction to those who shall honour her with their Custom.

The above-mentioned John Walker, and his Wife, live at Mr. Cobb's new House, next to Mr. Coke's, near the Road going down to the Capitol Landing; where there is also to be sold, Mens Shoes and Pumps, Turkey Coffee, Edging and Lace for Ladies Caps, and some Gold Rings.

2. Children should be educated in accordance with their social rank and expectations, 1762

Helen D. Bullock, ed., A Dissertation on Education in the Form of a Letter from James Maury to Robert Jackson, July 17, 1762," Papers of the Albemarle County Historical Society. II (Charlottesville, Va., 1942),40-46,57-58.

Rev. James Maury was one of Thomas Jefferson's teachers.

An Acquaintance with the Languages, antiently spoken in Greece & Italy, is necessary, absolutely necessary, for those, who wish to make any reputable Figure in Divinity, Medicine or Law.

It is also delightful, ornamental & useful, nay even necessary to such, as, in some other Parts of the World, turn in the more exalted Spheres of Life.

For Instance, it is so to the English Gentleman of the upper Oass, whose Opulence places him far above the perplexing Pursuits & sordid Cares, in which Persons of inferior Fortunes are usually engaged.

It is likewise most eminently to the British Nobleman, whose vast annual Revenues rank him with, nay set him above, many, who, in other Countries, claim the royal Stile & Title; & warrant his indulging himself in the Enjoyment of that calm Retreat from the Bustle of the World, of that studious Leisure and Philosophic Repose, which furnish him with the happiest Opportunities, not barely of making transient Visits to, but even fixing his Residence within, those sacred Recesses, sequestered Seats & classic Grounds, which are the Muses' favourite Haunts; a Repose, a Leisure, a Retreat, which nought, but his Countries pressing Calls, on some great Emergencies, has a Right to break in upon or interrupt.

………

It long has been, & still is, Matter of Doubt with me whether the Study of the Grecian & Roman Tongues be (I do not say necessary, for it seems quite obvious it is not, but even) proper for all our Youth, who are sent to a Grammar-school, who have Genius equal to the Task, & the circumstances of whose Parents bid fair for placing them above manual Labor & servile Employments, after their Attainment to Manhood. In the Instances above-mentioned, indeed, the Propriety, & even Necessity, of these Studies, are undeniable: but in this Case, which involves almost all our Youth above the lower Ranks in this Quarter of the World, l am far from convinced, that they are necessary or proper.

In Education it can be no irrational Maxim, that the Part, which, either the Circumstances, the natural Turn, the inclination, or the Talents of The Learner may either require or incline or capacitate him to act in the World, be ever in his Teacher's View; & that even his puerile Studies & earlier Exercises always converge & centre in that one Point.

What his future Circumstances may be in Reference to Fortune, may with Probability be conjectured from those of his Parents; which, if they be but a Remove or two from the Vulgar, are generally nearly guessed at in this Country. Whether he may have a natural Turn or Genius for either of the learned Professions, [2a] is what cannot usually be discovered very early in Life. However, as I cannot at present recollect that the Son of anyone Parent of a larger Fortune has, of late Years, been brought up to either of the three; since the Profits of neither are adequate to the Expence of a proper Education for, or to the Fatigue of a diligent Discharge of, the Duties of either of them; a Tutor, methinks, may hence conclude, that such Parents will not judge it eligible to train up their Sons for either of them.

It is then to be considered, what Kind of Education may be most suited for such, who, when they shall settle in the World, are to be masters of competent Fortunes, which they are to improve, either by the Culture of our Staple, by Merchandise, or by some other Method, than either of the Learned Professions. And such are most of those among us, who class with the Gentry.

Now, Sir, the Business, which these are usually obliged to pursue; - the Variety of Cares, inseparable from their Situation & Way of Life; render it quite obvious, they can have but little Opportunity or Leisure, after they launch out into the busy World to apply to the Study of the Languages. - Moreover, few, very few of them prosecute their Studies, either in private or public Schools, so long as their twentieth Year. Besides, they commonly marry very Young, & are thence in the early Stages of Life encumbered with Families. And, tho' you suppose them born to the greatest Fortunes, yet the prudent Management of a large Virginia Estate requires so frequent & close an Inspection, in Order, not only to improve, but preserve it, that the Possessor, when once he comes to be charged with the Care of it, can expect but little of that Leisure & Repose, which are requisite for a pleasurable or successful Engagement in such Parts of Literature, as the Languages, Criticism, & curious & deep Researches into Antiquity.

And yet, Sir, Parts of Literature there evidently are, with which even a Virginia Gentleman ought to have some Acquaintance; destitute of which, he must inevitably make but a ridiculous & awkward Figure in Life. And the Rudiments of these must be acquired in Childhood & Youth, or not at all.

For, if he have not some general Acquaintance with History, he can give or receive but very little Satisfaction or Benefit in private Conversation; nor can acquit himself with any tolerable Measure of Honor, & Dexterity in any of those public Stations, which are generally filled by Persons of his Rank. Some of his Time then must be spent this Way.

But, Sir, let us change the Prospect. From viewing a Virginia Gentleman, born to an affluent Fortune, of which we have but very few…let us contemplate another, who will be obliged to call in the Assistance of some lucrative Business to help out his little Patrimony to support himself & his Family, when he shall have one, in such Manner, as to prevent his mingling with & being lost among the vulgar Herd. And here, I trust, the Reasonableness of what has been said, will be still more evident & conspicuous.

Here then is a Person, to be educated, who, when come to a state of Manhood, besides the necessary Cares of Oconomy & good Husbandry, must recur to some profitable Vocation to preserve & improve his patrimonial Estate.

It will not, I believe, be denyed, that about his 14 or 15th Year he should be put under some Person, eminent in the Business he chooses, in Order to gain an Insight into all it's Modes, Forms & Mysteries, without which it is not to be carried on with Reputation or Success. The earlier then he lays a Foundation for the general Knowledge, mentioned above, as necessary for every Gentleman, the sooner he will be at Liberty to engage in Exercises, peculiarly adapted to qualify him for the Part he is to act. And the sooner this can be done, so much the better.

Gentlemen of this Sort are frequently called to the highest Posts of Honor & Trust in this Country. It is therefore reasonable to crowd as much of this most useful Knowlege as possible into that short Parenthesis of Time (if the Expression may be allowed) which stands between these two Periods, his beginning to learn the first Elements, & his quitting his scholastic Studies, to apply himself principally to acquire a Skill in the destined Business, whatever it be. But, if that short Space be filled with Latin & Greek; I doubt, his Pains & Time cannot justly be said to have been laid out to Advantage. For it is not possible for him to acquire a tolerable Stock of classical Knowledge, at the same Time have Leisure for such useful & necessary Studies, as English Grammar, reading, writing, arithmetic, History, Geography, Chronology, the more practical Parts of the Mathematics, Rhetoric, Eloquence & other Species of polite & useful Learning; nor for gaining an Acquaintance with, & taste for, some of the most instructive, entertaining & finished Productions of Genius in his own Language.

The Truth of it is, where there is a Strong Presumption, that a Youth, when he shall have attained unto Manhood, will become a Man of Business; it is but reasonable he should, while under his Tutor, be chiefly employed in Studies, that will be useful to him in the approaching active Scenes of Life. Others, however valuable, curious, or entertaining in themselves, yet, if they lend not this Way, are not to him worth the Time & Paines, that must be bestowed on them.

2a. Law, divinity, and medicine.

3. The duties of a tutor in an aristocratic Virginia family

Hunter D. Farish, ed., Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion (Williamsburg, Va., 1945), pp. 34-35, 66-67, 72, 208-222.

Fithian, a young graduate of the College of New Jersey (Princeton), was tutor of the children of Robert Carter of Nomini Hall.

LETTER TO THE REVEREND ENOCH GREEN

                                                                                                                                                                                            Decemr 1st 1773.

REVD SIR.

As you desired I may not omit to inform you, so far as I can by a letter, of the business in which I am now engaged, it would indeed be vastly agreeable to me if it was in my power to give you particular intelligence concerning the state and plan of my employment here.

I set out from home the 20th of Octr and arrived at the Hon: Robert Carters, of Nominy, in Westmorland County, the 28th I began to teach his chidren the first of November. He has two sons, and one Nephew; the oldest Son is turned of seventeen, and is reading Salust and the greek grammer; the others are about fourteen, and in english grammer, and Arithmetic. He has besides five daughters which I am to teach english, the eldest is turned of fifteen, and is reading the spectator; she is employed two days in every week in learning to play the Forte-Piana, and Harpsicord – The others are smaller, and learning to read and spell. Mr Carter is one of the Councellors in the general court at Williamsburg, and possest of as great, perhaps the clearest fortune according to the estimation of people here, of any man in Virginia: He seems to be a good scholar, even in classical learning, and is remarkabl one in english grammar; and notwithstanding his rank, which in general seems to countenance indulgence to children, both himself and Mrs Carter have a manner of instructing and dealing with children far superior, I may say it with confidence, to any I have ever seen, in any place, or in any family. They keep them in perfect subjection to themselves, and never pass over an occasion of reproof; and I blush for many of my acquaintances when I say that the children are more kind and complaisant to the servants who constantly attend them than we are to our superiors in age and condition. Mr Carter has an overgrown library of Books of which he allows me the free use. It consists of a general collection of law books, all the Latin and Greek Classicks, vast number of Books on Divinity chiefly by writers who are of the established Religion; he has the works of almost all the late famous writers, as Locke, Addison, Young, Pope, Swift, Dryden, &c. in Short, Sit, to speak moderately, he has more than eight times your number - His eldest Son, who seems to be a Boy of genius and application is to be sent to Cambridge University, but I believe will go through a course either in Philadelphia or Princeton College first. As to what is commonly said concerning Virginia that it is difficult to avoid being corrupted with the manners of the people, I believe it is founded wholly in a mistaken notion that persons must, when here frequent all promiscuous assemblies; but this is so far from truth that any one who does practise it, tho' he is accused of no crime, loses at once his character; so that either the manners have been lately changed, or the report is false, for he seems now to be best esteemed and most applauded who attends to his business, whatever it be, with the greatest diligence. I believe the virginians have of late altered their manner very much, for they begin to find that their estates by even small extravagance, decline, and grow involved with debt, this seems to be the spring which induces the People of fortune who are the pattern of all behaviour here, to be frugal, and moderate.

[Wednesday, January 5, 1774]

Rose at Seven. The morning very stormy. Bob & Nancy before Breakfast had a quarrel - Bob called Nancy a Lyar; Nancy upbraided Bob, on the other Hand, with being often flog'd by their Pappa; often by the Masters in College; that he had stol'n Rum, & had got drunk; & that he used to run away &c - These Reproaches when they were set off with Miss Nancys truely feminine address, so violently exasperated Bob that he struck her in his Rage - I was at the time in my Chamber; when I enter'd the Room each began with loud and heavy complaints, I put them off however with sharp admonitions for better Behaviour.

…Immediately after Breakfast Ben came over with a Message from Mr Carter, that he desired me to correct Bob severely immediately - Bob when I went into School sat quiet in the comer, & looked sullen, and penitent; I gave some orders to the Children, and went to my Room. - I sent for Bob - He came crying - I told him his Fathers Message; he confess'd himself guilty - I sent him to call up Harry - He came - I talked with them both a long Time recommended Diligence, & good Behaviour, but concluded by observing that I was obliged to comply with Mr Carter's request; I sent Harry therefore for some Whips. – Bob and poor I remained trembling in the chamber (for Bob was not more uneasy than I it being the first attempt of the kind I have ever made - The Whips came! - I ordered Bob to strip! - He desired me to whip Him in his hand in Tears - I told him no - He then patiently, & with great deliberation took of his Coat and laid it by - I took him by the hand and gave him four or five smart twigs; he cring'd, & bawld & promis'd - I repeated then about eight more, & demanded and got immediately his solemn promise for peace among the children, & Good Behaviour in general - I then sent him down - He conducts himself through this day with great Humility, & unusual diligence, it will be fine if it continues.

Tuesday [January 11, 1774]

The morning very cold - …I put Ben to construe some Greek, he has yet no Testa- ment, I gave him therefore Esops Fables in Greek, and Latin. I also took out of the Library, and gave him to read Gordon, upon Geography. Ben seem'd scared with his Greek Lesson, he swore, & wished for Homer that he might kick Him, as he had been told Homer invented Greek.

Letter to John Peck, "On going to Virginia

You will act wisely, if, from the begining, you convince all your Scholars which you may easily do, of your abilities in the several branches, which you shall profess to teach; you are not to tell them, totidem Verbis, "that you understand, perhaps as well as any man on the Continent both the Latin & Greek Classicks"; "& have gone through the usual Course in the noted College of New-Jersey, under Dr Witherspoon, so universally known & admired, where you have studied Criticism, Oratory, History, not to mention Mathematical & philosophical Studies, & dipt a good way into the French-Language, & that you have learn'd a smattering of Dancing, Cards &c. &c. &c." For Dun-p or Hack - n or the most profound dunce in your College or School would have too much sense to pass such impudence by, & not despise and reproach it; but you may speedily & certainly make them think you a "Clever Fellow" (which is a phrase in use here for a good Scholar) if you never mention any thing before them, only what you seem to be wholly master of – This will teach them never to dispute your determination, & always to rely upon your Judgment; two things which are most essential for your peace, & their advantage. That you may avoid yourself of this with certainty I shall recommend for your practice the following method, as useful at least, if not intirely necessary. Read over carefully, the lessons in Latin & Greek, in your leisure hours, that the story & Language be fresh in your memory, when you are hearing the respective lessons; for your memory is treacherous, & I am pretty certain it would confound you if you should be accosted by a pert School-Boy, in the midst of a blunder, with "Physician heal thyself"! - You ought likewise to do this with those who are working Figures; probably you may think that because the highest Cypherer is only in decimal arithmetic, it is not there fore worth your critical attention to be looking previously into the several Sums. But you are to consider that a sum in the Square-Root, or even in the Single Rule of three direct, is to your Pupils of as great importance, as the most abstruse problem in the Mathematicks to an able artist; & you may lay this down for a Maxim, that they will reckon upon your abilities, according as they find you acquainted & expert in what they themselves are studying. If therefore you have resolution (as I do not question your ability) to carry this plan which I have laid down into execution; you will thereby convince them of the propriety of their Subordination to you, & obedience to your instructions, so that you may lead them, without any resistance, and fix them to the Study of whatever Science you think proper, in which they will rise according to their respective Capacities.

Another current difficulty will be petitions for holidays. You must have good deal of steadiness if you are able to evade cleverly this practice which has grown so habitual to your little charge from a false method in their early education that they absolutely claim it as a necessary right. You must also as much as you can, avoid visible partiality. At least you must never suffer your fondness for one Scholar to grow so manifest, as that all your School shall see you look over a fault in him or her which same fault, if committed by another, you severely chastise. This will certainly produce in the others hatred & contempt. A fourth difficulty, and the last I shall mention, consists in knowing when, & in what measure to give the Boys Liberty to go from Home. The two younger Boys are wholly under your inspection; so that not only the progress they make in learning, but their moral Conduct (for both of these are critically observed & examined) either justifies or condemns your management to the World. If you keep them much at home, & close to business, they themselves will call you unfeeling and cruel; & refuse to be industrious; if you suffer them to go much abroad they are certainly out of the way of improvement by Study, probably, by discovering their gross Ignorance, they will expose to ridicule both themselves & all their former instructors, & possibly they may commit actual Crimes so as very much to injure themselves; & scandalize their family; but in each of these you will have a large share of blame, perhaps more than the parents, or even the Boys themselves - It will be said that the parents gave them no licence relying wholly on your Judgment & prudence, this will in good measure Justify them to the world. And as to the Boys they are full of youthful impetuosity & vigour, & these compel them, when they are free of restraint, to commit actions which with proper management they had surely avoided. I say, when you lay these things together, & view them on every side you will find so many perplexities arising in your mind, from a sense of ignorance of your duty, that you will proceed with caution & moderation, & will be carefull to examine with some precision into the circumstances of time, company, & Business when you license them to go out entirely at the risk of your Reputation.

One result of the growth of the colonies was the founding of six colleges between 1745 and 1770. Denominational rivalries resulting in part from the Great Awakening made sectarian control an important issue.

1. Jonathan Edwards proposes that colleges should continue to be "the schools of the prophets," 1740

Edwards, Conversions and Revival in New England, pp. 339-340.

Edwards was chosen president of the College of New Jersey in 1757 but died only a few months after taking office.

And though it may be thought, that I go out of my proper sphere, to intermeddle in the affairs of the colleges, yet I will take the liberty of an Englishman (that speaks his mind freely concerning public affairs) and the liberty of a minister of Christ (who doubtless may speak his mind as freely about things that concern the kingdom of his Lord and master) to give my opinion, in some things, with respect to those societies; the original and main design of which is to train up persons, and fit them for the work of the ministry. And I would say in general, that it appears to me that care should be taken, some way or other, that those societies should be so regulated, that they should, in fact, be nurseries of piety. Otherwise, they are fundamentally ruined and undone, as to their main design, and most essential end. They ought to be so constituted, that vice and idleness should have no living there. They are intolerable in societies, whose main design is, to train up youth in Christian knowledge and eminent piety, to fit them to be pastors of the flock of the blessed Jesus. I have heretofore had some acquaintance with the affairs of a college, and experience of what belonged to its tuition and government; and I cannot but think that it is practicable enough, so to constitute such societies, that there should be no being there, without being virtuous, serious and diligent. It seems to me to be a reproach to the land, that ever it should be so with our colleges that instead of being places of the greatest advantages for true piety, one cannot send a child thither, without great danger of his being infected, as to his morals; as it has certainly sometimes been with these Societies. It is perfectly intolerable; and any thing should be done, rather than it should be so. If we pretend to have any colleges at all, under any notion of training up youth for the ministry, there should be some way found out, that should certainly prevent its being thus. To have societies for bringing persons up to be ambassadors of Jesus Christ, and to lead souls to heaven, and to have them places of so much infection, is the greatest nonsense and absurdity imaginable.

And, as thorough and effectual care should be taken that vice and idleness are not tolerated in these societies, so certainly, the design of them requires, that extraordinary means should be used in them, for training up the students in vital religion, and experimental and practical godliness; so that they should be holy societies, the very place should be as it were sacred. They should be, in the midst of the land, fountains of piety and holiness. There is a great deal of pains taken, to teach the scholars human learning; there ought to be as much, and more care, thoroughly to educate them in religion, and lead them to true and eminent holiness. If the main design of these nurseries, is to bring up persons to teach Christ, then it is of the greatest importance that there should be care and pains taken, to bring those that are there educated, to the knowledge of Christ. It has been common in our public prayers, to call these societies, the schools of the prophets, and if they are schools, to train up young men to be prophets, certainly there ought to be extraordinary care there taken, to train them up to be Christians.

2. An attack upon sectarianism during the debate in New York at the founding of King's College (Columbia University), 1753: a series of essays entitled "Remarks on Our Intended College"

William Livingston et al., The Independent Reflector, or weekly Essays on Sundry Important Subjects more particularly adapted to the Province of New-York, ed. Milton Klein (Cambridge, Mass., 1963),pp.171, 174-176, 178-181, 188-189, 199-203.

Livingston (1723-1790) was an ambitious young politician who later represented New York at the First and Second Continental Congresses.

March 29, 1753

It is in the first Place observable, that unless [the] Constitution and Government [of the college] be such as will admit Persons of all protestant Denominations, upon a perfect Parity as to Privileges, it will itself be greatly prejudiced, and prove a Nursery of Animosity, Dissention and Disorder. The sincere Men of all Sects, imagine their own Profession, on the whole, more eligible and scriptural than any other. It is therefore very natural to suppose, they will exert themselves to weaken and diminish al other Divisions, the better to strengthen and enlarge their own. To this Cause must in a great Measure be ascribed, that Heat and Opposition, which animate the Breasts of many Men of religious Distinctions, whose intemperate and misapplied Zeal, is the only Blemish that can be thrown upon their Characters. Should our College, therefore, unhappily thro' our own bad Policy, fall into the Hands of any one religious Sect in the Province: Should that Sect, which is more than probable, establish its religion in the College, shew favour to its votaries, and cast Contempt upon others; 'tis easy to foresee, that Christians of all other Denominations amongst us, instead of encouraging its Prosperity, will, from the same Principles, rather conspire to oppose and oppress it. Besides English and Dutch Presbyterians, which perhaps exceed all our other religious Professions put together, we have Episcopalians, Anabaptists, Lutherans, Quakers, and a growing Church of Moravians, all equally zealous for their discriminating Tenets: Which-soever of these has the sole Government of the College, will kindle the Jealousy of the Rest, not only against the Persuasion so preferred, but the College itself. Nor can any Thing less be expected, than a general Discontent and Tumult; which, affecting all Ranks of People, will naturally tend to disturb the Tranquility and Peace of the Province.

In such a State of Things, we must not expect the Children of any, but of that Sect which prevails in the Academy will ever be sent to it: For should they, the established Tenets must either be implicitly received, or a perpetual religious War necessarily maintained. Instead of the liberal Arts and Sciences, and such Attainments as would best qualify the Students to be useful and ornamental to their Country, Party Cavils and Disputes about Trifles, will afford Topics of Argumentation to their incredible Disadvantage, by a fruitless Consumption of Time. Such Gentlemen, therefore, who can afford it, will give their Sons an Education abroad, or at some of the neighbouring Academies, where equally imbibing a Zeal for their own Principles, and furnished with the Arts of defending them, an incessant Opposition to all others, on their Return, will be the unavoidable Consequence…

Others, and many such there may be, who not able to support the Expence of an Education abroad, but could easily afford it at Home, thro' a Spirit of Opposition to the predominant Party, will rather determine to give their Children no Education at all. From all which it follows, that a College under the sole Influence of a Party, for want of suitable Encouragement, being but indifferently stocked with Pupils, will scarce arrive to the Usefulness of a Schola illustris, which being inferior to a College is, I hope, much short of what is intended by Ours.

Another Argument against so pernicious a Scheme is, that it will be dangerous to Society

…And have we not reason to fear the worst Effects of it, where none but the Principles of one Persuasion are taught, and all others depressed and discountenanced? Where, instead of Reason and Argument, of which the Minds o the Youth are not capable, they are early imbued with the Doctrines of a Party, enforced by the Authority of a Professor's Chair, and the combining Aids of the President, and all the other Officers of the College? That religious Worship should be constantly maintained there, I am so far from opposing, that I strongly recommend it, and do not believe any such Kind of Society, can be kept under a regular and due Discipline without it. But instructing the Youth in any particular Systems of Divinity, or recommending and establishing any single Method of Worship or Church Government, I, am convinced would be both useless and hurtful.

A Third Argument against suffering the College to fall into the Hands of a Party, may be deduced from the Design of its Erection, and Support by the Public.

The Legislature to whom it owes its Origin, and under whose Care the Affair has hitherto been conducted, could never have intended it as an Engine to be exercised for the Purposes of a Party. Such an Insinuation, would be false and scandalous. It would therefore be the Height of Insolence in any to pervert it to such mean, partial and little Designs. No, it was set on Foot, and I hope will be constituted for general Use, for the public Benefit, for the Education of all who can afford such Education: And to suppose it intended for any other less public-spirited Uses, is ungratefully to reflect upon all who have hitherto, had any Agency in an Undertaking so glorious to the Province, so necessary, so important and beneficial.

April 19, 1753

First: That all the Trustees be nominated, appointed, and incorporated by the Act, and that whenever an Avoidance among them shall happen, the same be reported by the Corporation to the next Sessions of Assembly, and such Vacancy supplied by Legislative Act. They hold their Offices only at the good Pleasure of the Governor, Council and General Assembly: and that no Person of any Protestant Denomination be, on Account of his religious Persuasion, disqualified for sustaining any Office in the College.

The Fifth Article I propose is, that no religious Profession in particular be established in the College; but that both Officers and Scholars be at perfect Liberty to attend any Protestant Church at their Pleasure respectively: And that the Corporation be absolutely inhibited the making of any By-Laws relating to Religion, except such as compel them to attend Divine Service at some Church or other, every Sabbath, as they shall be able, lest so invaluable a Liberty be abused and made a Cloak for Licenciousness.

To this most important Head, I should think proper to subjoin,

Sixthly: That the whole College be every Morning and Evening convened to attend public Prayers, to be performed by the President, or in his Absence, by either of the Fellows; and that such Forms be perscribed and adhered to as all Protestants can freely join in.

Besides the Fitness and indisputable Duty of supporting the Worship of God in the College; obliging the Students to attend it twice every Day, will have a strong Tendency to preserve a due Decorum, Good Manners and Virtue amongst them, without which the College will sink into Profaness and Disrepute. They will be thereby forced from the Bed of Sloth, and being brought before their Superiors, may be kept from Scenes of Wickedness and Debauchery, which they might otherwise run into, as hereby their Absence from the College will be better detected.

Seventhly: That Divinity be no Part of the public Exercises of the College. I mean, that it be not taught as a Science: That the Corporation be inhibited from electing a Divinity Professor; and that the Degrees to be conferred, be only in the Arts, Physic, and the Civil Law.

3. Rev. Thomas Clap, president of Yale College, argues for the sectarian character of colleges, 1754

Thomas Clap, The Religious Constitution of Colleges (New London, Conn., 1754), pp. 4-10, 12-13.

Colleges, are Religious Societies, of a Superior Nature to all others. For whereas Parishes, are Societies, for training up the common People; Colleges, are Societies of Ministers, for training up Persons for the Work of the Ministry. And therefore all their Religious Instructions, Worship, and Ordinances, are carried on, within their own Jurisdiction, by their own Officers, and under their own Regulation.

Religious, Worship, Preaching, and Instruction on the Sabbath, being one of the most important Parts, of the Education of Ministers; it is more necessary, that it should be under the Conduct, of the Authority, of the College, than any other Part of Education. The Preaching, ought to be adapted, to the superior Capacity of those, who are to be qualified, to be Instructors of others; and upon all Accounts Superior, to that, which is ordinarily to be expected, or indeed requisite, in a common Parish.

YALE-COLLEGE in New-Haven; does not come up, to the Perfection, of the Ancient Established Universities, in Great Britain; yet, would endeavour, to Imitate them, in most things, as far, as its present State, will admit of.

It was FOUNDED, A.D. 1701. By Ten Principal Ministers, in the Colony of CONNECTICUT; upon the Desire, of many other Ministers, and People in it; with the Licence, and Approbation, of the General Assembly. Their main Design, in that Foundation, was to Educate Persons, for the Ministry of these Churches, commonly called Presbyterian, or Congregational, according to their own Doctrine, Discipline, and Mode of Worship.

The Founders, at their first Meeting, in 1701; make, a Formal Foundation, of the College, by an Express Declaration; and giving, a Number of Books, for a Library…Particularly Prescribing, what Books of Divinity, they should Recite; and no other, but such, as the Trustees should order, and, that special Care, should be taken, in the Education, of the Students, not to suffer them, to be Instructed, in any different Principles, or Doctrines; and that, all proper Measures, should be taken, to promote, the Power, and Purity, of Religion; and the Peace, and best Edification, of those Churches. And particularly Order, that the Students, should attend, Morning, and Evening Prayers, and other religious Exercises; and especially, the Worship of God, on the Lord's Day; on Penalty, not exceeding, Six-pence Sterling.

The present Governors, of the College; esteem themselves, bound by Law, and the more sacred Ties of Conscience, and Fidelity to their Trust, committed to them, by their Predecessors; to pursue, and carryon, the pious Intention, and Design, of the Founders; and to improve, all the College Estate, descended to them, for that purpose.

Some indeed, have supposed, that, the only Design of Colleges, was to teach the Arts, and Sciences; and that Religion, is no part, of a College Education: And therefore, there ought to be, no religious Worship upheld, or enjoined, by the Laws of the College; but every Student, may Worship, where, and how, he pleaseth; or, as his Parents, or Guardian, shall direct.

But, it is probable, that there is not a College, to be found upon Earth, upon such a Constitution; without any Regard, to Religion. And we know, that Religion, and the Religion of these Churches, in particular; both, as to Doctrine, and Discipline, was the main Design, of the Founders, of this College (agreeable, to the minds, of the Body, of the People); and, this Design, their Successors, are bound in Duty, to pursue. And indeed, Religion, is a matter, of so great Consequence, and Importance; that the Knowledge, of the Arts, and Sciences, how excellent soever, in themselves, are comparatively, worth but little, without it.

4. An ethical system for college students

Samuel Johnson, Elementa Philosophica…(Philadelphia, 1752), pp. 2-4, 6-10,18-22.

Eighteenth-century colleges taught a Christianity harmonized with natural principles. This text by the first president of King's College represents the philosophical outlook students were expected to adopt.

3. ETHICS is the Art of living happily, by the right Knowledge of ourselves, and the Practice of Virtue: Our Happiness being the End, and Knowledge and Virtue, the Means to that End.

4. We are said to live happily when we enjoy ourselves, and all that is really good for us, in the whole of our Nature and Duration; i.e. considered, not only as sensitive, but as reasonable, free, active, social and immortal Creatures. For Happiness means that Pleasure which ariseth in us from our Enjoyment of ourselves, and all that is really good for us, or suitable to our Natures, and conducive to our Happiness in the whole.

5. The Enjoyment of ourselves, and all that is truly good, depends on a good Habit, or State of the Soul, united with, and delighting in its proper Objects, which are Truth and Good; the first being the Object of the Understanding; and the other of the Will and Affections: And this good Habit is the same Thing with Virtue.

And as Ease, Pleasure or Happiness, is what we call natural Good; so Uneasiness, Pain or

Misery, we call natural Evil.

10. In order to make a right Judgment of natural Good and Evil, as being the Test of moral, we must (as I said) take into the Account, the whole of our Nature and Duration, as being sensitive and rational, social and immortal Creatures. It must therefore be the Good and Happiness of the whole human Nature, and the whole moral System, in Time, and to all Eternity. Hence the Good of the animal Body, or the Pleasure of Sense, is but imaginary, and ceaseth to be Good, and hath even the Nature of Evil, so far forth as it is inconsistent with the Good and Happiness of the Soul: Which is also the Case of private Good, so far forth as it is inconsistent with the Good of the Publick, and temporal Good, so far forth as it is inconsistent with that which is eternal.

15. (1.) The Law of Reason and Conscience is, I think, the same Thing which some have called the moral Sense, being a kind of quick and almost intuitive Sense of Right and Wrong, deriving, as I conceive, from the perpetual Presence and Irradiation of the Deity in our Minds, and dictating with a strong and commanding Force what is reasonable, fair and decent, and so fit and right to be done, and giving us Applause and Satisfaction when we conform to it, and blaming and reproaching us, and filling us with Uneasiness and Remorse, when we act contrary to its Dictates: It being the Law of our Nature, that we should always affect and act conformable to the inward Sense of our own Minds and Consciences. And those consequent pleasing or uneasy Sentiments, considering it as a Law, are its Sanctions.

16. (2.) The Law of Self-love and Self-preservation, which makes us solicitous for the Continuance of our Existence, and the Enjoyment of ourselves, and ariseth from the Consciousness of our Existence, and of Pleasure or Pain, naturally attending certain Conditions in which we are, or may be…For it is manifest that we are, by the Author of our Nature, laid under a Necessity of valuing ourselves and our own Interest, and of seeking and pursuing our own Preservation and Well-being or Happiness, and whatever we find tends to it, or is connected with it; and consequently that of the Society to which we belong, with which we find our own is, in the Nature of Things, necessarily connected.

17. From whence ariseth (thirdly) the Law of Benevolence, or that Disposition we find also implanted in us towards the Good of others, arising from Reflection, whereby we are led to put ourselves in each other's Stead, and to have a secret Pleasure or Uneasiness in the good or ill Condition of others, from a Consciousness of our own, in the like Situation; which Sentiments therefore are its Sanctions. This Principle makes us desirous of each other's Esteem and Goodwill, and puts us upon doing what we know may be pleasing and advantageous to each other, and to the whole; so that self and social Good cannot be considered in themselves, as at all interfering, but as being intirely coincident and subservient to each other.

19. (2.) The external and moral Obligation we are under…ariseth from moral Government, or the Consideration that they are the Will and Law of a Superior who aims at our Happiness in enjoying them, to whom we are therefore accountable for our Behaviour, and by whom we shall be rewarded or punished; i.e. made to feel Pleasure or Pain, according as we behave well or ill…

20. (1.) The political Obligation to the Practice of these moral Actions and Forbearances, is the Consideration that they are the publick Will, or the Will and Law of the Society or Government we live under, and to which we are accountable (whether indeed it be a Family or a State) enforced by the Sanctions of temporal Rewards and Punishments. In this View moral Laws become political Laws, and moral Good, political Good, to which many others might be added, for promoting of the publick Weal.

21. But here again, tho' GOD is the Founder of Government, both economical and political, yet while we rest on this Foot, and act merely under these political Views, and with a Regard only to our Interest in this World, tho' we may be said to be meer moral Men (as that Expression is commonly used) or good Citizens, and good Common-wealthmen, we cannot be said to be religious, no, not even in those Actions that relate to GOD himself. But,

22. (2.) The religious Obligation we are under to those Actions and Forebearances that are necessary to our Happiness in the whole, is the Consideration that they are the Will and Law of GOD, our Creator, Preserver, and supreme moral Governor, the great Author, Head and Lord of the whole social System, enforced by the Sanctions of eternal Rewards and Punishments, to whom we are justly accountable for all our Behaviour, and by whom we must expect to be treated well or ill, according as that shall be found to be good or bad.

25. So that upon the whole it appears, That Morality, in the just Extent of it, is the same Thing with the Religion of Nature, or that Religion which is founded in the Nature of Things; and that it may be defined, the Pursuit of our true Happiness by Thinking, Affecting and Acting, according to the Laws of Truth and right Reason, under a Sense of the Duty that we owe to Almighty GOD, and the Account we must expect to give of ourselves to Him.

§ 10. I also find, upon looking about me, an endless Variety of sensible Objects; a glorious Heaven above me, and a spacious Earth beneath me, furnished with a surprizing Variety of Inhabitants, all connected (together with my own Body, one of the most curious Machines of them all) in a most wonderful Manner one with another. So that it is manifest from their Dependence and Subserviency, that they are contrived and designed to constitute, as in Fact they do, one harmonious, beautiful and useful System; one complete and intire Whole; in which I find every Thing fitted, in the best Manner, to' my own Conveniences and Pleasures, both for the comfortable Subsistence of my Body, and the Entertainment and Delight of my Soul; but so, that it was, at the same time, the manifest Design of them to excite, engage, direct and employ my Activity, without which I find I cannot comfortably enjoy either myself or them.

§11. I can moreover carry my Thoughts and Imaginations throughout the vast Spaces of Heaven and Earth, and have a mighty Curiosity to pry and search out the Secrets and Laws of Nature, and discover and conceive, as much as I can, of the great Author of it, and what Sort of Behaviour and Conduct is suitable to my Nature, and the Relation I stand in to Him and my Fellow Creatures…

§13. As to those of my own Species (from which by Analogy I may form some Notion of them) I find we were evidently made for Society, being furnished with the Power of Speech as well as Reason, whereby we are capable of entering into the Understanding of each other's Minds and Sentiments, and of holding mutual Intercourse and Conversation one with another, and jointly conspiring to promote our common Well-being; to which we are naturally led by a Principle of Benevolence, and social Dispositions and Affections, founded in the Frame and Condition of our Nature, which not only placeth us in the various Relations of Husbands and Wives, Parents and Children, and other Relatives; but also lays us under a Necessity of mutual Dependence one upon another, which obligeth us to enter into Compacts for our Defence and Safety, and for maintaining both private Right and publick Order, and promoting the common Good of our Species, in the several Communities to which we belong. And as I have a quick Sense of what is right in others towards me as being what I am, and of my own Ease and Comfort, so I cannot divest myself of a Sense of what must, for the same Reason, be right in, me towards others, and a Sense of Tenderness and Compassion for those that are in Misery, whereby I am strongly prompted to relieve them: And these Tendencies and Affections of the social Kind, are evidently planted in us for promoting our social Happiness. And finally; as I cannot long enjoy myself in a State of Solitude, and have a strong Passion for Society; so I find, in Fact, that my true Interest and Enjoyment of myself, depends on the general Interest and good Order of the Community, and this, in Addition to those social Dispositions, strongly prompts me to the Love of my Country, and to be forward and active in whatever may promote the publick Weal. Such are my Abilities and Advantages, and such my Condition, Circumstances and Tendencies, and those of the Kind to which I stand related.

§16. At the same time we find, by sad Experience, that we are daily liable to many Infirmities and Diseases, Pains and Miseries, Losses and Disappointments, and perpetual Uncertainty, with respect to Life and Health, and every Thing about us, and must expect, in a little Time to quit our present State of Being, and resign to the common Fate of a

Dissolution, which is called Death, that King of Terrors, who is incessantly making his Approaches towards us in one Shape or another. Such a strange Mixture is human Nature! Such a various Creature is Man! Such his noble Abilities and Excellencies on the one Hand, and such his Imperfections and Wretchedness on the other.

5. Philip Fithian, a recent graduate of the College of New Jersey, fondly recalls the diversions of student life, 1774

Journal and Letters of Philip Fithian, pp. 253-254.

Every time I reflect on that Place of retirement & Study, where I spent two years which I call the most pleasant as well as the most important Period in my past life – Always when I think upon the Studies, the Discipline, the Companions, the Neighbourhood, the exercises, & Diversions, it gives me a secret & real Pleasure, even the Foibles which often prevail there are pleasant on recollection; such as giving each other names & characters; Meeting & Shoving in the dark entries; knocking at Doors & going off without entering; Strewing the entries in the night with greasy Feathers; freezing the Bell; Ringing it at late Hours of the Night; - I may add that it does not seem disagreeable to think over the Mischiefs often practised by wanton Boy's - Such are writing witty pointed anonymous Papers, in Songs, Confessions, Wills, Soliliques, Proclamations, Advertisements &c - Picking from the neighbourhood now & then a plump fat Hen or Turkey for the private entertainment of the Club "instituted for inventing & practising several new kinds of mischief in a secret polite Manner" - Parading bad Women - Burning Curse-John - Darting Sun-Beams upon the Town-People Reconoitering Houses in the Town, & ogling Women with the Telescope - Making Squibs, & other frightful compositions with Gun-Powder, & lighting them in the Rooms of timorous Boys, & new comers - The various methods used in naturalizing Strangers, of incivility in the Dining-Room to make them bold; writing them sharp & threatning Letters to make them smart; leading them at first with long Lessons to make them industrious - And trying them by Jeers & Repartee in order to make them choose their Companions &c &c -