I. Children in the Enlightenment and the Revolution

During the first half of the eighteenth century the people of the American colonies steadily increased in numbers and prosperity. On the seaboard, peaceful towns and secure farms replaced wilderness outposts. At the same time a secular outlook advanced at the expense of traditional religion. Although the religious establishment in the colonies remained outwardly intact, religious emotions and loyalties were eroded by a more materialistic view of life. John Locke (1632-1704), the English philosopher, exemplified this new common-sense rationalism. Natural fights, the social contract, and environmentalism -- his political, social, and psychological doctrines -- seemed to be confirmed by the leading characteristics of American experience. Little wonder that his writings were welcomed by Americans who derived private rights from nature, could recall the moment when their society was created, and recognized among themselves the emergence of a distinct character in this new environment. Locke's American counterpart was

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), who shared with the Englishman this secular and utilitarian point of view. Observation and practical reason were the means of formulating rules of behavior which then had to pass the test of actual life.

Providentially, morality by and large coincided with the rules for the pursuit of worldly success and esteem. In the universe of Locke and Franklin, governed by a benevolent if remote deity, the harmony between the moral law for individuals and the means of social progress inspired a fervent belief in the future. In pursuing his own good every man joined in the great procession of American advance. Franklin's many plans for uniting private and public improvement were characteristic expressions of the age.

Belief in progress and individualism was reinforced by the Great Awakening, the first sustained religious revival in America. Seemingly an attempt to return to a simpler world of biblical certainties, the Great Awakening did not in fact look to the past. Its revivalists preached an evangelistic Calvinism fu which the individual initiated a search for salvation. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) and George Whitefield (1714-1770) fixed the attention of their listeners upon the future. Men, women, and even children would earn an eternal habitation in hell or heaven through their own decisions and actions.

Revivalistic Calvinism created new forms of participation by children in religious life. As much as adults, they were capable of the faith and feeling which composed religious experience as revivalists understood and preached it.

The intricate structure of abstruse theological doctrines erected by the Puritan divines was subordinate or even irrelevant to the teachings of the heart. Although a powerful thinker like Jonathan Edwards subjected religious ideas to a rigorous exposition, the beliefs he explicated were compatible with experiential religion. Furthermore, while the denominational divisions that resulted from the Great Awakening assisted in the establishment of several new colleges in the middle years of the eighteenth century, and thereby enlarged opportunities for higher education, these colleges were in the main untroubled by any sense of incompatibility between their intellectual objectives and the religion of feeling.

Puritan parents had expected their children passively to accept the religious truth that was supplied to them, but in the Great Awakening children became active seekers of redemption. Awareness of sin and the need for salvation the most important of life's lessons - came characteristically during youth, often with a devastating suddenness. A few gifted souls might apprehend the truth during childhood. Their example was used to show others, including their elders, how to proceed in the pursuit of righteousness. Since this movement challenged the supremacy of adult males in the crucially important matter of perceiving fundamental truth, it provoked a spirited counterattack from the guardians of tradition. Revivals, asserted the orthodox, were divisive, prone to excess and disorder. Evangelicalism set child against parent, wife against husband, and the lower orders against their betters, and threatened the established institutions of church, state, and society. These fears were not unfounded: the Great Awakening prefigured both a recurring pattern of religious and social unrest and the prominent part henceforth to be taken by young people in the discovery and dramatization of moral and social truths.

The American Revolution and the attainment of independence, like the Great Awakening, tended to enhance the status of the young. Debates over public policy and the tactics of protest raged in colonial schools and colleges; when the fighting commenced they contributed many of their students to service in the army. Some of the leading figures in the struggle for independence were remarkable for their relative youthfulness. Thomas Jefferson was only thirty-three when he wrote the Declaration of Independence in 1776, his fellow Virginian James Madison was twenty-five, and Alexander Hamilton, soon to be a member of Washington's staff, was a youngster of twenty-one. The American Revolution enlisted youth's sympathy and loyalty and in turn offered them new opportunities in an independent nation.

Most important, perhaps, was the impetus the secular version of the idea of progress received from the movement for independence. The successful defiance of the most powerful imperial nation of Europe, followed by the creation of a large and independent national republic, confirmed the view that a remarkable experiment in human improvement was occurring in the New World. The doctrine of material and moral progress directed attention to the young. Future generations were bound to be better than those of the past and present. If the new generation fell short of expectations, as often seemed to be the case, then the fault most likely lay with parents. The formulation of a national creed around the belief in progress accentuated generational distinctiveness and tended to give the young the benefit of the doubt in a conflict of moral values with their elders. Children and youth, further along the road to perfection, enjoyed a natural superiority over those who had already reached maturity.

1. John Locke's advice on family government, 1690

John Locke, "Some Thoughts Concerning Education," in The Works of John Locke, IX (London, 1823), sections 40-46.

Locke, colonial America's favorite philosopher, although unmarried and childless himself, offered characteristic advice on authority in the family. "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" was written in 1690, but the ideas contained in it express the eighteenth-century faith in reason and common sense as guides to the good life.

Those…that intend ever to govern their children, should begin it whilst they are very little; and look that they perfectly comply with the will of their parents. Would you have your son obedient to you, when past a child? Be sure then to establish the authority of a father, as soon as he is capable of submission, and can understand in whose power he is. H you would have him stand in awe of you, imprint it in his infancy; and, as he approaches more to a man, admit him nearer to your familiarity: so shall you have him your obedient subject (as is fit) whilst he is a child, and your affectionate friend when he is a man. For methinks they mightily misplace the treatment due to their children, who are indulgent and familiar when they are little, but severe to them, and keep them at a distance, when they are grown up. For liberty and indulgence can do no good to children: their want of judgment makes them stand in need of -restraint and discipline. And, on the contrary, imperiousness and severity is but an ill way of treating men, who have reason of their own to guide them, unless you have a mind to make your children, when grown up, weary of you; and secretly to say within themselves, "When will you die, father?"

I imagine every one will judge it reasonable, that their children, when little, should look upon their parents as their lords, their absolute governors; and, as such, stand in awe of them: and that, when they come to riper years, they should look on them as their best, as their only sure friends: and, as such, love and reverence them. The way I have mentioned, if I mistake not, is the only one to obtain this. We must look upon our children, when grown up, to be like ourselves; with the same passions, the same desires. We would be thought rational creatures, and have our freedom; we love not to be uneasy under constant rebukes and brow-beatings; nor can we bear severe humours, and great distance, in those we converse with. Whoever has such treatment when he is a man, will look out other company, other friends, other conversation, with whom he can be at ease. If therefore a strict hand be kept over children from the beginning, they will in that age be tractable, and quietly submit to it, as never having known any other: and if, as they grow up to the use of reason, the rigour of government be, as they deserve it, gently relaxed, the father's brow more smoothed to them, and the distance by degrees abated: his former restraints will increase their love, when they find it was only a kindness for them, and a care to make them capable to deserve the favour of their parents, and the esteem of every body else.

Thus much for the settling your authority over children in general. Fear and awe ought to give you the first power over their minds, and love and friendship in riper years to hold it: for the time must come, when they will be past the rod and correction; and then, if the love of you make them not obedient and dutiful; if the love of virtue and reputation keep them not in laudable courses; I ask, what hold will you have upon them, to turn them to it? Indeed, fear of having a scanty portion, if they displease you, may make them slaves to your estate; but they will be nevertheless ill and wicked in private, and that restraint will not last always. Every man must some time or other be trusted to himself, and his own conduct; and he that is a good, a virtuous, and able man, must be made so within. And therefore, what he is to receive from education, what is to sway and influence his life, must be something put into him betimes: habits woven into the very principles of his nature; and not a counterfeit carriage, and dissembled outside, put on by fear, only to avoid the present anger of a father, who perhaps may disinherit him.

This being laid down in general, as the course ought to be taken, it is fit we come now to consider the parts pf the discipline to be used, a little more particularly. I have spoken so much of carrying a strict hand over children, that perhaps I shall be suspected of not considering enough what is due to their tender age and constitutions. But that opinion will vanish, when you have beard me a little farther. For I am very apt to think, that great severity of punishment does but very little good; nay, great harm in education: and I believe it will be found, that, those children who have been most chastised, seldom make the best men. All that I have hitherto contended for, is, that whatsoever rigour is necessary, it is more to be used, the younger children are; and, having by a due application wrought its effect, it is to be relaxed, and changed into a milder sort of government.

A compliance, and suppleness of their wills, being by a steady hand introduced by parents, before children have memories to retain the beginnings of it, will seem natural to (them, and work afterwards in them, as if it were so; preventing all occasions of struggling, or repining. The only care is, that it be begun early, and inflexibly kept to, till awe and respect be grown familiar, and there appears not the least reluctancy in the submission and ready obedience of their minds. When this reverence is once thus established (which it must be early, or else it will cost pains and blows to recover it, and the more, the longer it is deferred) it is by it, mixed still with as much indulgence as " they made not an ill use of, and not by beating, chiding, or other servile punishments, they are for the future to be governed, as they grow up to more understanding.

That this is so, will be easily allowed, when it is best considered What is to be aimed at, in an ingenuous education; and upon what it turns.

1. He that has not a mastery over his inclinations, he that knows not how to resist the importunity of present pleasure or pain, for the sake of what reason tells him is fit to be done, wants the true principle of virtue and industry; and is in danger of never being good for any thing. This temper, therefore, so contrary to unguided nature, is to be got betimes; and this habit, as the true foundation of future ability and happiness, is to be wrought into the mind, as early as may be, even from the first dawnings of any knowledge or apprehension in children; and so to be confirmed in them, by all the care and ways imaginable, by those who have the oversight of their education.

2. On the other side, if the mind be curbed, and humbled too much in children; if their spirits be abased and broken much, by too strict an hand over them; they lose all their vigour and industry, and are in a worse state than the former. For extravagant young fellows, that have liveliness and spirit, come sometimes to be set right, and so make able and great men: but dejected minds, timorous and tame, and low spirits, are hardly ever to be raised, and very seldom attain to any thing. To avoid the danger that is on either hand is the great art: and he that has found a way how to keep up a child's spirit, easy, active, and free; and yet, at the same time, to restrain him from many things he has a mind to, and to draw him to things that are uneasy to him; he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these seeming contradictions, has, in my opinion, got the true secret of education.

2. Benjamin Franklin's first project for public improvement

Leonard W. Labaree etal., eds., The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (New Haven, 1964), pp. 53-54.

…Living near the Water, I was much in and about it, learnt early to swim well, and to manage Boats, and when in a Boat or Canoe with other Boys I was commonly allow'd to govern, especially in any case of Difficulty; and upon other Occasions I was generally a Leader among the Boys, and sometimes led them into Scrapes, of which I will mention one Instance, as it shows an ear1y projecting public Spirit tho' not then justly conducted. There was a Salt Marsh that bounded part of the Mill Pond, on the Edge of which at Highwater, we us'd to stand to fish for Minews. By much Trampling, we had made it a mere Quagmire. My Proposal was to build a Wharf there fit for us to stand upon, and I show'd my Comrades a large Heap of Stones which were intended for a new House near the Marsh, and which would very well suit our Purpose. Accordingly in the Evening when the Workmen were gone, I assembled a Number of my Playfellows, and working with them diligently like so many [ants] sometimes two or three to a Stone, we brought them all away and built our little Wharff; The next Morning the Workmen were surpriz'd at Missing the Stones; which were found in our Wharff; Enquiry was made after the Removers; we were discovered and complain'd of; several of us were corrected by our Fathers; and tho' I pleaded the Usefulness of the Work, mine convinc'd me that nothing was useful which was not honest.

3. A young man's plan for moral perfection

The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, pp. 148-150.

It was about this time [ca. 1721] that I conceiv'd the bold and arduous Project of arriving at moral Perfection. I wish'd to live without committing any Fault at any time; I would conquer all that either Natural Inclination, Custom, or Company might lead me into. As 1 knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a Task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my Attention was taken up in guarding against one Fault, I was often surpriz'd by another. Habit took the Advantage of Inattention. Inclination was sometimes too strong for Reason. I concluded at length, that the mere speculative Conviction that it was our Interest to be compleatly virtuous, was not sufficient to prevent our Slipping, and that the contrary Habits must be broken and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any Dependance on a steady uniform Rectitude of Conduct. For this purpose I therefore contriv'd the following Method.

In the various Enumerations of the moral Virtues I had met with in my Reading, I found the Catalogue more or less numerous, as different Writers included more or fewer Ideas under the same Name. Temperance, for Example, was by some confin'd to Eating and Drinking, while by others it was extended to mean the moderating every other Pleasure, Appetite, Inclination or Passion, bodily or mental, even to our Avarice and Ambition. I propos'd to myself, for the sake of Clearness, to use rather more Names with fewer Ideas annex'd to each, than a few Names with more Ideas; and I included under Thirteen Names of Virtues all that at that lime occurr'd to me as " necessary or desirable, and annex'd to each a short Precept, which fully express'd the Extent I gave to its Meaning.

These Names of Virtues with their Precepts were

1. TEMPERANCE.

Eat not to Dulness. Drink not to Elevation.

2. SILENCE.

Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself, Avoid trifling Conversation.

3. ORDER.

Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time.

4. RESOLUTION.

Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve.

5. FRUGALITY. Make no Expence but to do good to others or yourself: i.e. Waste nothing.

6. INDUSTRY.

Lose no Time. Be always employ'd in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions.

7. SINCERITY.

Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; speak, speak accordingly.

8. JUSTICE.

Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty.

9. MODERATION.

Avoid Extreams. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve.

10. CLEANLINESS.

Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Cloaths or Habitation.

11. TRANQUILITY.

Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable.

12. CHASTITY.

Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dulness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation.

13. HUMILITY.

Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

My Intention being to acquire the Habitude of all these Virtues, I judg'd it would be well not to distract my Attention by attempting the whole at once, but to fix it on one of them at a time, and when I should be Master of that, then to proceed to another, and so on till I should have gone thro' the thirteen…

1. A religious prodigy, 1735

Jonathan Edwards, A Narrative of Many Surprising Conversions in Northampton and Vincinity (1736) Together with some Thouhts on the Revival in New England (1740) (Worcester, Mass., 1832), pp. 66-69.

I now proceed to the other instance that I would give an account of, which is of the little child forementioned. Her name is Phebe Bartlet, daughter of William Bartlet. I shall give the account as I took it from the mouths of her parents, whose veracity, none that know them doubt.

She was born in March, in the year 1731. About the latter end of April, or beginning of May, 1735, she was greatly affected by the talk of her brother, who had been hopefully converted a little before, at about eleven years of age, and then seriously talked to her about the great things of religion. Her parents did not know of it at that time, and were not wont, in the counsels they gave to their children, particularly to direct themselves to her, by reason of her being so young, and, as they supposed not capable of understanding; but after her brother had talked to her, they observed her very earnestly to listen to the advice they gave to the other children, and she was observed very constantly to retire, several times in a day, as was concluded, for secret prayer, and grew more and more engaged in religion, and was more frequent in her closet, till at last she was wont to visit it five or six times in a day, and Was so engaged in it, that nothing would at any time divert her from her stated closet exercises. Her mother often observed and watched her, when such things occurred, as she thought most likely to divert her, either by putting it out of her thoughts, or otherwise engaging her inclinations, but never could observe her to fail. She mentioned some very remarkable instances.

She once, of her own accord, spake of her unsuccessfulness, in that she could not find God, or to that purpose. But on Thursday, the last day of July, about the middle of the day, the child being in the closet, where it used to retire, its mother heard it speaking aloud, which was unusual, and never had been observed before; and her voice seemed to be as of one exceeding importunate and engaged, but her mother could distinctly hear only these words (spoken in her childish manner, but seemed to be spoken with extraordinary earnestness, and out of distress of soul), Pray BLESSED LORD give me salvation! I PRAY, BEG pardon all my sins! When the child had done prayer, she came out of the closet, and came and sat down by her mother, and cried out aloud. Her mother very earnestly asked her several times, what the matter was, before she would make any answer, but she continued exceedingly crying, and wreathing her body to and fro, like one in anguish of spirit. Her mother then asked her whether she was afraid that God would not give her salvation. She then answered yes, I am afraid I shall go to hell! Her mother then endeavored to quiet her at all - but she continued thus earnestly crying and taking on for some time, till at length she suddenly ceased crying and began to smile, and presently said with a smiling countenance, Mother, the kingdom of heaven is come to me! Her mother was surprised at the sudden alteration, and at the speech, and knew not what to make of it, but at first said nothing to her. The child presently spake again, and said, there is another come to me, and there is another, there is three; and being asked what she meant, she answered, One is thy will be done; and there is another, enjoy him forever; by which it seems that when the child said there is three come to me, she meant three passages of its catechism that came to her mind.

After the child had said this, she retired again into her closet; and her mother went over to her brother's, who was next neighbor; and when she came back, the child being come out of the closet, meets her mother with this cheering speech; I can find God now! Referring to what she had before complained of, that she could not find God. Then the child spoke again, and said, I love God! Her mother asked her how well she loved God, whether she loved God better than her father and mother; she said, yes. Then she asked her whether she loved God better than her little sister Rachel, she answered yes, better than any thing!

………

The same day the elder children, when they came home from school, seemed such affected with the extraordinary change that seemed to be made in Phebe; and her sister Abigail standing by, her mother took occasion to counsel her, now to improve her time, to prepare for another world; on which Phebe burst out in tears, and cried out, poor Nabby! Her mother told her, she would not have her cry, she hoped that God would give Nabby salvation; but that did not quiet her, but she continued earnestly crying for some time; and when she had in a measure ceased, her sister Eunice being by her, she burst out again, and cried, poor Eunice! and cried exceedingly; and when she had almost done, she went into another room, and there looked upon her sister Naomi, and burst out again, crying poor Amy! Her mother was greatly affected at such behaviour in the child, and knew not what to say to her. One of the neighbors coming in a little after, asked her what she had cried for. She seemed, at first, backward to tell the reason. Her mother told her she might tell that person, for he had given her an apple; upon which she said, she cried because she was afraid they would go to hell.

2. Self-righteous children criticize their elders, 1743

Charles Chauncy, Seasonable Thoughts in the State of Religion in New England (Boston, 1843), pp. 168-170

Reverend Charles Chauncy (1705-1787), minister of the First Church in Boston, complained of the divisive effects of the Great Awakening, particularly in spreading disrespect and insubordination among youth.

The Subjects…of these Terrors…are Children, Women, and youngerly Persons. Not that others han't been wrought upon. Instances there have been of Men; and these, both middle-aged, and advanced in Years, who have both cried out, and fallen down: But 'tis among Children, young People and Women, whose Passions are soft and tender, and more easily thrown into a Commotion, that these Things chiefly prevail. I know, 'tis thus in those Places, where I have had Opportunity to make Inquiry. And from the Accounts transmitted to me from Friends, in other Places, it appears to have been so among them also.

………

They often begin with a single Person, a Child, or Woman, or Lad, whose Shrieks set others a Shrieking; and so the Shrieks catch from one to another, 'till the whole Congregation is alarmed, and such an awful Scene, many Times, open'd, as no Imagination can paint to the Life. To this Purpose is that in the Boston Post-Boy, when after an Account of the terrible Language made Use of by the Itinerants, 'tis added, "This frequently frights the little Children, and sets them a Screaming; and that frights their tender Mothers, and sets them to Screaming, and by Degrees spreads over a great Part of the Congregation: And 40, 50, or an 100, of them screaming all together, makes such an awful and hideous Noise as will make a Man's Hair stand on End. Some will faint away, fall down upon the Floor, wallow and foam. Some Women will rend off their Caps, Handkerchiefs, and other Clothes, tear their Hair down about their Ears, and seem perfectly bereft of their Reason."

………

I shall not exceed the literal Truth, when I say, that there never was a Time, since the Settlement of New England, wherein there was so much bitter and rash Judging; Parents condemning their Children, and Children their Parents; Husbands their Wives, and Wives their Husbands; Masters their Servants, and Servants their Masters; Ministers their People, and People their Ministers. Censoriousness, to a high Degree, is indeed the constant Appendage of this religious Commotion.

Wherever it takes Place, the Subjects of it, too generally, are uncharitable to Neighbours, to Brethren of the same Community, to Relatives, to Ministers in an especial Manner; yea, to all the World that are not in their Way of thinking and speaking.

………

I shall, as an Illustration of this Censoriousness, insert here some Part of a Letter, wrote to me by a Friend, upon his own Knowledge. Says he, " 'Tis remarkable, those, who were said to be struck with Conviction, immediately seem'd to be fill'd with a censuring and judging Spirit against almost all others. . . declaring them to be in an unconverted State. - One Instance among many others, I shall mention. There was a young Woman about 15 Years of Age, who fell under this Conviction, and for about four Hours together she, in this Manner, exhorted. At first, she began with her Father, and told him, she could see the Image of the Devil then in his Face, and that he was going Post-haste down to Hell; and that all the Prayers he had ever made in his Family were nothing but Abomination in the Ears of the Almighty, and that all the Counsels he had ever given her, had no better a Tendency than to instruct her, how she should please the Devil; and that both he, and his Wife, were no better than the Devil. Many such Instances there were of Children condemning their Parents. And many old Persons also, though, as well as the Parents above, Persons of unblemish'd Characters, a good Profession, sober, and Lovers of Religion, were called, and by Children too, old Hypocrites, Heirs of eternal Damnation, going the Road that would lead them to Hell, &c."

3. Jonathan Edwards advocates "dealing plainly and thoroughly with children, in the concerns of their souls," 1740

Edwards, Conversions and Revival in New England, pp. 202-203.

What has more especially given offence to many, and raised a loud cry against some preachers, as though their conduct were intolerable, is their frightening poor innocent children, with talk of hell fire, and eternal damnation. But if those that complain so loudly of this, really believe, what is the general profession of the country, viz. That all are by nature the children of wrath, and heirs of hell; and that everyone that has not been born again, whether he be young or old, is exposed, every moment, to eternal destruction, under the wrath of Almighty God; I say, if they really believe this, then such a complaint and cry as this, betrays a great deal of weakness and inconsideration. As innpcent as children seem to be to us, yet, if they are out of Christ, they are not so in God's sight, but are young vipers, and are infinitely more hateful than vipers, and are in a most miserable condition, as well as grown persons; and they are naturally very senseless and stupid, being born as the wild asses colt, and need much to awaken them. Why should we conceal the truth from them? Will those children that have been dealt tenderly with, in this respect, and lived and died insensible of their misery, until they come to feel it in hell, ever thank parents, and others, for their tenderness, in not letting them know what they were in danger of. If parents' love towards their children was not blind, it would affect them much more to see their children every day exposed to eternal burnings, and yet senseless, than to see them suffer the distress of that awakening, that is necessary in order to their escape from them, and that tends to their being eternally happy, as t,he children of God. A child that has a dangerous wound, may need the painful lance, as well as grown persons; and that would be a foolish pity, in such a case, that should hold back the lance, and throwaway the life. I have seen the happy effects of deal~ " ing plainly, and thoroughly with children, in the concerns of their souls, without sparing them at all, in many instances; and never knew any ill consequences of it in anyone instance.

1. Harvard College students support the cause of American liberty, 1769

Andrew Eliot to Thomas Hollis, December 25, 1769, Hollis Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.

Andrew Eliot (1718-1778) of Boston was secretary of the Harvard Corporation and a close observer of the college and its students.

I shall be sorry if the Court should be at Cambridge[1] It hinders the Scholars in their studies. The young Gentlemen are already enough taken up with politics. They have imbibed the Spirit of the times. Their declamations and forensic disputes breathe the Spirit of Liberty. This has always been encouraged, but they have sometimes wrought themselves up to such a pitch of Enthusiasm that it has been difficult to keep them within due bounds. But their tutors are fearful of giving too great a check to a disposition which may hereafter fill the Country with Patriots and choose to leave it to age and experience to correct their ardor.

[1] It had been suggested that the meeting of the General Court be moved to Cambridge owing to the presence of British troops in Boston.

2. Disorder at Harvard College over the drinking of tea, March 1,1775

"Records of the College Faculty, Harvard College, March 1, 1775," IV (1775-1781), 4-5, Harvard University Archives.

March 1. At a Meeting of the President, Professors and Tutors

A disorder having arisen this morning in the Hall at breakfast, between some of the students, respecting the drinking of India Tea; and some of the utensils for breakfasting having been broke; and the parties having been heard--Resolved--1. We disapprove of the conduct on both sides as imprudent.

Resolved --2. That the regulation of the Hall belongs exclusively to the Government of the College, and consequently that no students have a right to interpose with regard thereunto, and that those students who have thus interposed have conducted disorderly in this respect, and ought to make restitution for the property of their fellow students by such interposition destroyed.

Resolved--3. Since the carrying India Teas into the Hall is found to be a source of uneasiness and grief to many of the students, and as the use of it is disagreeable to the people of this Country in general; and as those who have carried Tea into the hall declare that the drinking of it in the Hall is a matter of trifling consequence with them; that they be advised not to carry it in for the future, and in this way that they, as well as the other students in all ways, discover a disposition to promote harmony, mutual affection, and confidence, so well becoming members of the same society: that. so peace and happiness may be preserved within the walls of the college whatever convulsions may unhappily distract the State abroad.

3. Thomas Paine, the pamphleteer of the Revolution, compares the colonies' need for independence to that of grown up children, 1776

Thomas Paine, "The Crisis," The Political Writings of Thomas Paine, I (Middletown, N.J., 1837), 181; first published in 1776.

The title which [Great Britain] assumed, of parent country, led to, and pointed out the propriety, wisdom and advantage of a separation; for, as in private life, children grow into men, and by setting up for themselves, extend and secure the interest of the whole family, so in the settlement of colonies large enough to admit of maturity, tpe same policy should be pursued, and the same consequences would follow. Nothing hurts the affections both of parents and children so much, as living too closely connected, and keeping up the distinction too long. Domineering will not do over those, who, by a progress in 1ife, have become equal in rank to their parents, that .is, when they have families of their own; and though they may conceive themselves the subjects of their advice, Will not suppose them the objects of their government. I do not, by drawing this parallel, mean to admit the title of parent country, because, if it is due any where, it is due to Europe collectively, and the first settlers from England were driven here by persecution. I mean only to introduce the term for the sake of policy and to show from your title the line of your interest.

4. A New Hampshire youth leaves home to serve on an American warship, 1779

Andrew Sherburne, Memoirs, 2d ed. (Providence, 1831), pp. 18-21.

Ships were building, prizes taken from the enemy unloading, privateers fitting out, standards waved on the forts and batteries, the exercising of soldiers, the roar of cannon, the sound of martial music and the call for volunteers so infatuated me, that I was filled with anxiety to become an actor in the scene of war. My eldest brother, Thomas, had recently returned from a cruise on board the "General Mifflin," of Boston, Capt. Mc'Neal. This ship had captured thirteen prizes, some of which, however, being of little value, were burnt, some were sold in France, others reached Boston, and their cargoes were divided among the crew of that ship. On my brother's return, I became more eager to try my fortune at sea. My father, though a high Whig, disapproved the practice of privateering. Merchant vessels, at this period, which ran safe, made great gains, seamen's wages were consequently very high. Through my father's influence Thomas was induced to enter the merchants' service. Though not yet fourteen years of age, like other boys, I imagined myself almost a man. I had intimated to my sister, that if my father would not consent that I should go to sea, I would run away, and go on board a privateer. My mind became so infatuated with the subject, that I talked of it in my sleep, and was overheard by my mother. She communicated what she had heard to my father.--My parents were apprehensive that I might wander off and go on board some vessel without their consent. At this period it was not an uncommon thing for lads to come out of the country, step on board a privateer, make a cruise and return home, their friends remaining in entire ignorance of their fate, until they heard it from themselves. Others would pack up their clothes, take a cheese and a loaf of bread, and steer off for the army. There was a disposition in commanders of privateers and recruiting officers to encourage this spirit of enterprise in young men and boys. Though these rash young adventurers did not count the cost, or think of looking at the dark side of the picture, yet this spirit, amidst the despondency of many, enabled our country to maintain a successful struggle and finally achieve her independence.

The continental ship of war Ranger, of eighteen guns, commanded by Thomas Simpson, Esq. was at this time shipping a crew in Portsmouth. This ship had been ordered to join the Boston and Providence frigates and the Queen of France of twenty guns, upon an expedition directed by Congress. My father having consented that I should go to sea, preferred the service of Congress to privateering. He was acquainted with Capt. Simpson. --On board this ship were my two half uncles, Timothy and James Weymouth. Accompanied by my father, I visited the rendezvous of the Ranger and shipped as one of her crew. There were probably thirty boys on board this ship. As most of our principal officers belonged to the town, parents preferred this ship as a station for their sons who were about to enter the naval service. Hence most of these boys were from Portsmouth. As privateering was the order of the day, vessels of every description were employed in the business. Men were not wanting who would hazard themselves in vessels of twenty tons or less, manned by ten or fifteen hands. Placing much dependence on the protection of my uncles, I was much elated with my supposed good fortune, which had at last made me a sailor.

I was not yet fourteen years of age. I had received some little moral and religious instruction, and was far from being accustomed to the habits of town boys, or the maxims or dialect of sailors. The town boys thought themselves vastly superior to country lads; and indeed in those days the distinction was much greater than at present. My diffidence and aversion to swearing, rendered me an object of ridicule to those little profane chaps. I was insulted, and frequently obliged to fight. In this I was sometimes victorious. My uncles, and others, prompted me to defend my rights. I soon began to improve in boxing, and to indulge in swearing. At first this practice occasioned some remorse of conscience. --I however endeavored to persuade myself that there was a necessity for it. I at length became a proficient in this abominable practice. To counterbalance my guilt in this, I at the same time became more constant in praying; heretofore I had only prayed occasionally; now I. prayed continually when I turned in at night, and vainly imagined that I prayed enough by night to atone for the sins of the day. Believing that no other person on board prayed, I was filled with pride, concluding I had as much or more religion than the whole crew besides. The boys were employed in waiting on the officers, but in time of action a boy was quartered to each gun to carry cartridges. I was waiter to Mr. Charles Roberts, the boatswain, and was quartered at the third gun from the bow. Being ready for sea, we sailed to Boston, joined the Providence frigate, commanded by Commodore Whipple, the Boston frigate and the Queen of France. I believe that this small squadron composed nearly the entire navy of the United States: We proceeded to sea some time in June, 1779. A considerable part of the crew of the Ranger being raw hands and the sea rough, especially in the gulf stream, many were exceedingly sick, and myself among the 'rest. We afforded a subject of constant ridicule to the old sailors.

5. The happy farmer and his household, 1782

Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer (New York, 1963), pp. 47-49, 58-59, 305-307; first publlshed in 1782.

Crevecoeur (1735-1813), born in Normandy, served under Montcalm in the French and Indian War. He came to New York in 1759, married in 1765, and settled on a farm, "Pine Hill," in Orange County, New York. He was in France in 1782 when Letters from an American Farmer was first published. On his return to America in 1783 Crevecoeur found his wife dead, farmhouse burned, and children scattered.

When I contemplate my wife, by my fire-side, while she either spins, knits, darns, or suckles our child, I cannot describe the various emotions of love, of gratitude, of conscious pride which thrill in my heart, and often overflow in involuntary tears. I feel the necessity, the sweet pleasure of acting my part, the part of an husband and father, with an attention and propriety which may entitle me to my good fortune. It is true these pleasing images vanish with the smoke of my pipe, but though they disappear from my mind, the impression they have made on my heart is indelible. When I play with the infant, my warm imagination runs forward, and eagerly anticipates his future temper and constitution. I would willingly open the book of fate, and know in which page his destiny is delineated; alas! where is the father who in those moments of paternal extacy can delineate one half of the thoughts which dilate his heart? I am sure 1 cannot; then again I fear for the health of those who are become so dear to me, and in their sicknesses I severely pay for the joys I experienced while they were well. Whenever I. go abroad it is always involuntary. I never return home withoUt feeling some ,pleasing emotion, which I often suppress as useless and foolish.. The instant I enter on my own land, the bright idea of property, of exclusive right, of independence exalt my mind... Precious soil, I say to myself, by what singular custom of law is it that thou wast made to constitute the riches of the freeholder?

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Often when I plough my low ground, I place my little boy on a chair which screws to the beam of the plough--its motion and that of the horses please him, he is perfectly happy and begins to chat. As I lean over the handle, various are the thoughts which croud into my mind. I am now doing for him, I say, what my father formerly did for me, may God enable him to live ~ that he may perform the same operations for the same purposes when I am worn out and old! I relieve his mother of some trouble while I have him with me, the odoriferous furrow exhilarates his spirits, and seems to do the child a great deal of good, for he looks more blooming since I have adopted that practice; Can more pleasure, more dignity be added to that primary occupation? The father thus ploughing with his child, and to feed his family, is inferior only to the emperor of China ploughing as an example to his kingdom.

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At home my happiness springs from very different objects; the gradual unfolding of my children's reason, the study of their dawning tempers attract all my paternal attention. I have to contrive little punishments for their little faults, small encouragements for their good actions, and a variety of other expedients dictated by various occasions. But these are themes unworthy your perusal, and which ought not to be carried beyond the walls of my house, being domestic mysteries adapted only to the locality of the small sanctuary wherein my family resides. Sometimes I delight in inventing and executing machines, which simplify my wife's labour. I have been tolerably successful that way; and these, Sir, are the narrow circles within which I constantly revolve, and what can I wish for beyond them? I bless God for all the good he has given me; I envy no man's prosperity, and with no other portion of happiness than that I may live to teach the same philosophy to my children; and give each of them a farm, shew them how to cultivate it, and be like their father, good substantial independent American farmers--an appellation which will be the most fortunate one, a man of my class can possess, so long as our civil government continues to shed blessings on our husbandry.

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6. What is an American? 1782

Crevecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer, pp. 63-64.

What attachment can a poor European emigrant have for a country where he had nothing? The knowledge of the language, the love of a few kindred as poor as himself, were the only cords that tied him: his country is now that which gives him land, bread, protection, and consequence: Ubzpanis ibi patria, is the motto of all emigrants. What then is the American, this new man? He is either an European, or the descendant of an European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations. He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. He becomes an American by being received in the broad lap of our great Alma Mater. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world. Americans are the western pilgrims, who are carrying along with them that great mass of arts, sciences, vigour, and industry which began long since in the east; they will finish the great circle. The Americans were once scattered all over Europe; here they are incorporated into one of the finest systems of population which has ever appeared, and which will hereafter become distinct by the power of the different climates they inhabit. The American ought therefore to love this country much better than that wherein either he or his forefathers were born. Here the rewards of his industry follow with equal steps the progress of his labour; his labour is founded on the basis of nature, self-interest; can it want a stronger allurement? Wives and children, who before in vain demanded of him a morsel of bread, now, fat and frolicsome, gladly help their father to clear those fields whence exuberant crops are to arise to feed and to clothe them all; without any part being claimed, either by a despotic prince, a rich abbot, or a mighty lord. Here religion demands but little of him; a small voluntary salary to the minister, and gratitude to God; can he refuse these? The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles; he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions. From involuntary idleness, servile dependence, penury, and useless labour, he has passed to toils of a very different nature, rewarded by ample subsistence.--This is an American.