A. APPRENTICESHIP
The Elizabethan Statute of Artificers legalizes and regulates apprenticeship, 1562
"An Act Containing Divers Orders for Artificers, Labourers, Servants of Husbandry, and Apprentices," 5 Elizabeth, 1562--ch. 4, Great Britain, Statutes at Large, II, 527-535.
XXV. . . . Every person being an householder, and having and using half a ploughland at the least in tillage, may have and receive as an apprentice any person above the age of ten years, and under the age of eighteen years, to serve in husbandry, until his age of one and twenty at the least, or until the age of twenty-four years, as the parties can agree, and the said retainer and taking of an apprentice, to be made and done by indenture.
XXVI. . . . Every person being an householder, and twenty-four years old at the least, dwelling or inhabiting. . . in any city or town corporate, and using and exercising any art, mystery or manual occupation there, shall and may. . . have and retain the son of any freeman, not occupying husbandry, nor being a labourer, and inhabiting in the same. . . to serve and be bound as an apprentice after the custom and order of the city of London,[1a] for seven years at the least, so as the term and years of such apprentice do not expire or determine afore such apprentice shall be of the age of twenty-four years at the least.
XXVII. Provided always. . . That it shall not be lawful to any person dwelling in any city or town corporate, using or exercising any of the mysteries or crafts of a merchant trafficking. . . trade into any of the parts beyond the sea, mercer, draper, goldsmith, ironmonger, imbroiderer or clothier, that doth or shall put cloth to making and sale, to take any apprentice or servant to be instructed or taught in any of the arts, occupations, crafts or mysteries which they or any of them do use or exercise; except such servant or apprentice be his son; or else that the father and mother of such apprentice or servant, shall have, at the time of taking such apprentice or servant, lands, tenements or other hereditaments, of the clear yearly value of forty shillings of one estate of inheritance or freehold at the least.
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XXX. . . . It shall be lawful to any person using or exercising the art or occupation of a smith, wheel-wright, plough-wright, mill-wright, carpenter, rough mason, plaisterer, sawyer, lime-burner, brick-maker, brick-layer... wheresoever he or they shall dwell or inhabit, to have or receive the son of any person as apprentice in manner and form aforesaid, to be taught and instructed in these occupations only, and in none other, albeit the father or mother of any such apprentice have not any lands, tenements or hereditaments.
XXXI. . . . After the first day of May next coming, it shall not be lawful to any person or persons, other than such as now do lawfully use or exercise any art, mystery or manual occupation, to set up, occupy, use or exercise any craft, mystery or occupation, now used or occupied within the realm of England or Wales; except he shall have been brought up therein seven years at the least as an apprentice, in manner and form above-said; nor to set any person on work in such mystery, art or occupation, being not a workman at this day; except he shall have been apprentice as is aforesaid; or else having served as an apprentice as is aforesaid, shall or will become a journeyman, or be hired by the year; upon pain that every person willingly offending or doing the con`trary, shall forfeit and lose for every default
forty shillings for every month.
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XXXV. . . . And if any such master shall misuse or evil intreat his apprentice, or that the said apprentice shall have any just cause to complain, or the apprentice do not his duty to his master, then the said master or apprentice being grieved, and having cause to complain, shall repair unto one justice of peace within the said county, or to the mayor. . . of the city . . . where the said master dwelleth, who shall by his wisdom and discretion take such order and direction between the said master and his apprentice, as the equity of the cause shall require; and if for want of good conformity in the said master, the said justice of peace, or the said mayor. . . cannot compound and agree the matter between him and his apprentice, then the said justice, or the said mayor. . . shall take bond of the said master to appear at the next [court] sessions then to be holden in the said county, or within the said city. . . and upon his appearance and hearing of the matter before the said justices. . . if it be thought meet unto them to discharge the said apprentice of his apprenticehood, that then the said justices. . . shall have power by authority hereof, in writing under their hands and seals, to pronounce and declare, That they have discharged the said apprentice of his apprenticehood, and the cause thereof; and the said writing so being made and enrolled by the clerk of the peace or town-clerk, amongst the records that he keepeth, shall be a sufficient discharge for the said apprentice against his master, his executors and administrators; the indenture of the apprenticeshiphood, or any law or custom to the contrary notwithstanding. And if the default shall be found to be in the apprentice, then the said justices, or the said mayor or other head officer, with the assistance aforesaid, shall cause due correction and punishment to be ministered unto him, as by their wisdom and discretions shall be thought meet.
Standard form of indenture for an apprentice, Virginia, 1659
Philip A. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia, II (New York and London, 1896), 1-2n.
This indenture made the 6th day of June in the year of our Lord Christ 1659, witnesseth, that Bartholomew Clarke the son of John Clarke of the City of Canterbury, sadler, of his own liking and with the consent of Francis Plumer of the City of Canterbury, brewer, hath put himself apprentice unto Edward Rowzie of Virginia, planter, as an apprentice with him to dwell from the day of the date above mentioned unto the full term of four years from thence next ensuing fully to be complete and ended, all which said term the said Bartholomew Clarke well and faithfully the said Edward Rowzie as his master shall serve, his secrets keep, his commands most just and lawful he shall observe, and fornication he shall not commit, nor contract matrimony with any woman during the said term; he shall not do hurt unto his master, nor consent to the doing of any, but to his power shall hinder and prevent the doing of any; at cards, dice or any unlawful games he shall not play; he shall not waste the goods of his said master nor lend them to anybody without his master's consent; he shall not absent himself from his said master's service day or night, but as a true and faithful servant, shall demean himself. [A]nd the said Edward Rowzie in the mystery, art, and occupation of a planter… the said Bartholomew shall teach or cause to be taught, and also during said term shall find and allow his apprentice competent meat, drink, apparel, washing, lodging with all other things fitting for his degree, and in the end thereof, fifty acres of land to be laid out- for him, and all other things which according to the custom of the country is or ought to be done.
Punishment of unruly apprentices
1. Apprentice whipped and sentenced to house of correction, Salem, Massachusetts, 1669
Records and Files of the Quarterly Courts of Essex County, IV (Salem, 1914),200.
Daniel Rumball's complaint: That whereas your said petitioner, having taken into his custody as an apprentice Charles Hill certain years last past, for and during the space of four or five years, the greatest part of which time is now expired, but finding by experience the said Charles to be grown to such an unruly frame of spirit and carriage that it is both troublesome and dangerous to bear with any longer, as in particular, by laying violent hands upon his said master and throwing him down twice and fetching blood of him, threatening to break his neck, running at his face with a chair, and vowing to be the death of some of them, as also by customary lying, swearing, and other like miscarriages, speaking slightingly and contemptuously of the honored mayor and of legal proceedings against him, too intolerable to be borne in a family, etc. Witnesses: Thomas Brocket, Alastair Gryme and Peter, the Frenchman [who] works with master Humber.
Order of Court: Charles Hill, for many disorderly and abusive carriages in the family, and swearing, was sentenced to be whipped and sent to the house of correction to remain during the court's pleasure.
2. Apprentice sold and term of service extended, 1682
Records of Essex County, VIII (1921), 302.
Thomas Bettes, servant to John Simmons, often running away and being incorrigible, said Simmons was discharged of his obligation of teaching the trade of a weaver.
Mr. William Cogswell having taken Thomas Bettes, who was sentenced to be whipped, and paying 40s., said Bettes had his corporal punishment remitted, and in consideration of his master Cogswell buying off his whipping, he agreed to serve him one year more than the time of his indenture and the six months ordered to serve his master Simmons by Ipswich court; Mar. 29, 1682 . . .
3. Charge for whipping equals one month's service, 1696
H. Clay Reed and G. C. Miller, eds., The Burlington Court Book; A Record of Quaker Jurisprudence in West New Jersey, 1680-1709 (Washington, 1944), p. 186.
Upon complaint of Daniel Sutton against William Sanford, his apprentice, for running away and stealing and cheating; said Daniel being willing to part with his said apprentice and the apprentice also willing to leave him and to go to John Petty, the court ordered the said Daniel Sutton to pass over his apprentice to said John Petty or to any other person, and the said apprentice to serve such master seven years from this February 20, 1696. And ordered that said Sanford shall be severely whipped at a cart's tail (only the execution to be remitted until his first misbehavior) and the charge of whipping to be at his master's charge, and his master to be allowed a month's service more for it.
Apprentices complain of not being taught a trade
1. The jury finds for the defendant, 1672
"Records of the Suffolk County Court, 1671-1680," in CSM Publications, XXIX (1933), 155.
Smith contra Carrington: Mathias Smith, plaintiff, contra Edward Carrington, defendant, in an action of the case for not learning and instructing him fully in the trade of a turner according as by indenture he is bound, but employing him in other servile work, whereby the said Mathias is damnified for want of being perfected in the trade of a turner to the damage of twenty pounds or thereabout, and other due damages according to attachment dated 17th of October, 1672 . . . The jury. . . found for the defendant, costs of court being 19s. 2d.
2. An apprentice bound to learn trade of carpenter is assigned to a cooper, 1705
The Burlington Court Book, pp. 312-313.
Whereas William Alcot being bound to Thomas Emley for nine years and three months to learn the trade of a carpenter, and the said William Alcot being assigned to William Budd Jr. who is no carpenter to serve the said term of years, therefore the court orders that he the said William Budd, when the said William Alcot has served seven years and three months of the term abovesaid, shall have his choice either for his apprenticeship to expire then or to serve the whole term and have the trade of a cooper or receive ten pounds now current money without a trade. . .
Preparing one's child for a calling
Although a child started working at age six, it was usually at age fourteen that his father decided to choose a calling for him. In the Puritan ethic a calling meant more than a means of gaining a livelihood. God called an individual for a particular occupation, by giving him the talent and inclination for it. In choosing a calling for his son, a father had to carry out God's plan, as well as be sure that the occupation chosen would be of service to society.
1. The heavenly calling and the worldly calling
Cotton Mather, A Christian at His Calling; Two Brief Discourses, one Directing a Christian in his General Calling; Another Directing him in his Personal (Boston, 1701), pp. 36-45.
. . . There are Two Callings to be minded by All Christians. Every Christian hath a GENERAL CALLING; which is, to Serve the Lord Jesus Christ, and Save his own Soul, in the Services of Religion, that are incumbent on all the Children of men. . . . But then, every Christian hath also a PERSONAL CALLING; or a certain Particular Employment, by which his Usefulness, in his Neighborhood, is distinguished. God hath made man a Sociable Creature. We expect Benefits from Humane Society.
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But upon that Enquiry, What is your Occupation? a Christian should be able to give this further Account, That he hath an Allowable Occupation, yea an Agreeable Occupation; and that he Entered into it with a suitable Disposition . . . If our Calling be that whereby God will be Offended, it cannot be a Calling wherein we shall be our selves Befriended.
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But this is not enough. A Christian should have it contrived, That his Calling be Agreeable, as well as Allowable. It is a wonderful Inconvenience for a man to have a Calling that won't Agree with him. See to it, O Parents, that when you choose Callings for your Children, you wisely consult their Capacities, & their Inclinations; lest you Ruine them. And, Oh! cry mightily to God, by Prayer, yea with Fasting & Prayer, for His Direction when you are to resolve upon a matter of such considerable consequence. But, O Children, you also should be Thoughtful and Prayerful, when you are going to fix upon your Callings; and above all, propose deliberately Right Ends unto your selves in what you do . . .
2. The prerequisites for a proper calling
Wadsworth, The Well-Ordered Family, pp.41-51.
Parents should bring up their children to be diligent in some lawful business. It's true, time for lawful recreation now and then, is not altogether to be denied them. Even when Jerusalem is a City of Truth, a Holy Mountain, it shall be full of boys and girls playing in the streets. . . Yet for such to do little or nothing else but play in the streets, especially when almost able to earn their living, is a great sin and shame. They should by no means be brought up in idleness, or merely to learn fashions, ceremonious compliments, and to dress after the newest mode, etc. Such folly as this ruins many children. Boys and girls should be brought up diligently in such business as they are capable of, and as is proper for them. Adam (our First Parent) brought up his two sons. . . one to keep sheep, the other to till the ground. . . Nay when Adam himself was innocent, God allowed him not to be idle, but set him to dress and keep the Garden. . . Peter, Andrew, James and John, were called by Christ from following their particular occupation, to be apostles. . . These godly men, these eminent Saints, were not lazy, idle drones. They had their particular callings [or] trades [and] were employed in lawful business; and were so diligent therein, they would not leave the same to set a preaching or prophesying, till they had a plain clear call from God so to do. And from these instances we might learn by the way that for men to be diligent in their own proper calling, trade, or business, acting suitably in their own sphere, is the way to meet with God's blessing, and to be advanced by God, to be great blessings to others. . .
And when you put them out (if you do put them out) to some trade or calling; to be sure see that 'tis a lawful calling, and such as suits (as much as may be) the abilities and inclinations of your children. Put them into religious families, the heads whereof will say, with [Joshua] . . . As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord. Charge them also to be dutiful and faithful to those under whose care they must be. Some are more fit for a studious life, to serve the public with their heads, pens, tongues; and some for a more mechanic employment. If you're careful to bring them up diligently in proper business, you take a good method for their comfortable substance in this world (and for their being serviceable in their generation), you do better for them than if you should bring them up idly and yet leave them
great estates.
3. Finding a calling for a son
Samuel Sewall, Diary, 1674-1729 in MHS Collections, 5th ser., V (1878), 421-422, 423, 452.
Sewall's eldest son, unhappy in his apprenticeship with Captain Checkly, a general merchant, wished to find a proper calling and eventually secured employment with Mr. Wilkins, a bookseller.
Sixth-day, February 7th., [1695/6]. Last night Sam could not sleep because of my brother's speaking to him of removing to some other place, mentioning Mr. Usher's. I put him to get up a little wood, and he even fainted, at which brother was much startled, and advised to remove him forthwith and place him somewhere else, or send him to Salem and he would do the best he could for him. Since, I have expressed doubtfulness to Sam as to his staying there.
He mentioned to me Mr. Wadworth's Sermon against Idleness, which was an affiiction to him. He said his was an idle calling, and that he did more at home than there, take one day with another. And he mentioned Mr. Stoddard's words to me, that [I] should place him with a good master, and where [he] had fulness of employment. It seems Sam overheard him, and now alleged these words against his being where he was because of his idleness. Mentioned also the difficulty of the employment by reason of the numerousness of goods and hard to distinguish them, many not being marked; whereas books, the price of them was set down, and so could sell them readily. I spoke to Captain Checkly again, and again. . . he gave me no encouragement that his being there would be to Sam's profit; and Mrs. Checkly always discouraging.
Mr. Willard's Sermon from those words, "What doest thou hear Elijah?" was an occasion to hasten the removal.
February 10, Second-day. I went to Mr. Willard to ask whether had best keep him at home today. He said no, but tell Captain Checkly first. But when I came back, Sam was weeping and much discomposed, and loath to go because it was a little later than usual, so I thought 'twas hardly fit for him to go in that case, and went to Captain Checkly and told him how it was, and thanked him for his kindness to Sam, Captain Checkly desired Sam might come to their house and not be strange there, for which I thanked him very kindly. He presented his service to my wife, and I to his who was in her chamber. Captain Checkly gave me Sam's copybook that lay in a drawer.
Just before I got thither, I met Mr. Grafford who told me that Mumford said I was a knave. The good Lord give me Truth in the inward parts, and finally give rest unto my dear son and put him into some calling wherein He will accept of him to serve Him. . .
Sabbath, February 16, 1695/6. Captain Checkly's son Samuel is baptized with us. I was very sorrowful by reason of the unsettledness of my Samuel. . .
February 26, 1695/6. I prayed with Sam alone that God would direct our way as to a calling for him.
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April 8, 1697. . . . In the morning agreed with Mr. Wilkins about Sam's living with him.
Second-day, April 12, 1697. Sam begins to go to Mr. Wilkins. Sold some of the Joy of Faith and some of Dr. Goodwin's third volume. At night we read Gal. 6:9--in due season we shall reap, if we faint not. Lord furnish father and son with faith.
Benjamin Franklin's tribulations as apprentice
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, pp. 52-53, 57-59, 68-71, 77.
My elder Brothers were all put Apprentices to different Trades. I was put to the Grammar School at Eight Years of Age, my Father intending to devote me as the Tithe of his Sons to the Service of the Church. My early Readiness in learning to read (which must have been very early, as I do not remember when I could not read) and the Opinion of all his Friends that I should certainly make a good Scholar, encourag'd him in this Purpose of his. My uncle Benjamin too approv'd of it, and propos'd to give me all his Shorthand Volumes of Sermons I suppose as a Stock to set up with, if I would learn his Character. I continu'd however at the Grammar School not quite one Year, tho' in that time I had risen gradually from the Middle of the Class of that Year to be the Head of it, and farther was remov'd into the next Class above it, in order to go with that into the third at the End of the Year. But my Father in the mean time, from a View of the Expence of a College Education which, having so large a Family, he could not well afford, and the mean Living many so educated were afterwards able to obtain, Reasons that he gave to his Friends in my Hearing, altered his first Intention, took me from the Grammar School, and sent me to a School for Writing and Arithmetic kept by a then famous Man, Mr. Geo. Brownell, very successful in his Profession generally, and that by mild encouraging Methods. Under him I acquired fair Writing pretty soon, but I fail'd in the Arithmetic, and made no Progress in it.
At Ten Years old, I was taken home to assist my Father in his Business, which was that of a Tallow Chandler and Sope-Boiler. A Business he was not bred to, but had assumed on his Arrival in New England and on finding his Dying Trade would not maintain his Family, being in little Request. Accordingly I was employed in cutting Wick for the Candles, filling the Dipping Mold, and the Molds for cast Candles, attending the Shop, going of Errands, &c. I dislik'd the Trade and had a strong Inclination for the Sea; but my Father declar'd against it . . .
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I continu'd thus employ'd in my Father's Business for two Years, that is till I was 12 Years old; and my Brother John, who was bred to that Business having left my Father, married and set up for himself at Rhodeisland, there was all Appearance that I was destin'd to supply his Place and be a Tallow Chandler. But my Dislike to the Trade continuing, my Father was under Apprehensions that if he did not find one for me more agreable, I should break away and get to Sea, as his Son Josiah had done to his great Vexation. He therefore sometimes took me to walk with him, and see Joiners, Bricklayers, Turners, Braziers, &c. at their Work, that he might observe my Inclination, and endeavour to fix it on some Trade or other on Land. It has ever since been a Pleasure to me to see good Workmen handle their Tools; and it has been useful to me, having learnt so much by it, as to be able to do little Jobs my self in my House, when a Workman could not readily be got; and to construct little Machines for my Experiments while the Intention of making the Experiment was fresh and warm in my Mind. My Father at last fix'd upon the Cutler's Trade, and my Uncle Benjamin's Son Samuel who was bred to that Business in London being about that time establish'd in Boston, I was sent to be with him some time on liking. But his Expectations of a Fee with me displeasing my Father, I was taken home again.
From a Child I was fond of Reading, and all the little Money that came into my Hands was ever laid out in Books. . .
This Bookish Inclination at length determined my Father to make me a Printer, tho' he had already one Son (James) of that Profession. In 1717 my Brother James return'd from England with a Press and Letters to set up his Business in Boston. I lik'd it much better than that of my Father, but still had a Hankering for the Sea. To prevent the apprehended Effect of such an Inclination, my Father was impatient to have me bound to my Brother. I stood out some time, but at last was persuaded and signed the Indentures, when I was yet but 12 Years old. I was to serve as an Apprentice till I was 21 Years of Age, only I was to be allow'd Journeyman's Wages during the last Year. In a little time I made great Proficiency in the Business, and became a useful Hand to my Brother. . .
Tho' a Brother, he considered himself as my Master, and me as his Apprentice; and accordingly expected the same Services from me as he would from another; while I thought he demean'd me too much in some he requir'd of me, who from a Brother expected more Indulgence. Our Disputes were often brought before our Father, and I fancy I was either generally in the right, or else a better Pleader, because the Judgment was generally in my favour: But my Brother was passionate and had often beaten me, which I took extreamly amiss; and thinking my Apprenticeship very tedious, I was continually wishing for some Opportunity of shortening it, which at length offered in a manner unexpected.[1b]
One of the Pieces in our News-Paper, on some political Point which I have now forgotten, gave Offence to the Assembly. He was taken up, censur'd and imprison'd for a Month by the Speaker's Warrant, I suppose because he would not discover his Author. I too was taken up and examin'd before the Council; but tho' I did not give them any Satisfaction, they contented themselves with admonishing me, and dismiss'd me; considering me perhaps as an Apprentice who was bound to keep his Master's Secrets. During my Brother's Confinement, which I resented a good deal, notwithstanding our private Differences, I had the Management of the Paper, and I made bold to give our Rulers some Rubs in it, which my Brother took very kindly, while others began to consider me in an unfavourable Light, as a young Genius that had a Turn for Libelling and Satyr. My Brother's Discharge was accompany'd with an Order of the House (a very odd one) that James Franklin should no longer print the Paper called the New England Courant. There was a Consultation held in our Printing House among his Friends what he should do in this Case. Some propos'd to evade the Order by changing the Name of the Paper; but my Brother seeing Inconveniences in that, it was finally concluded on as a better Way, to let it be printed for the future under the Name of Benjamin Franklin. And to avoid the Censure of the Assembly that might fall on him, as still printing it by his Apprentice, the Contrivance was, that my old Indenture should be return'd to me with a full Discharge on the Back of it, to be shown on Occasion; but to secure to him the Benefit of my Service I was to sign new Indentures for the Remainder of the Term, which were to be kept private. A very flimsy Scheme it was, but however it was immediately executed, and the Paper went on accordingly under my Name for several Months. At length a fresh Difference arising between my Brother and me, I took upon me to assert my Freedom, presuming that he would not venture to produce the new Indentures. It was not fair in me to take this Advantage, and this I therefore reckon one of the first Errata of my Life: But the Unfairness of it weigh'd little with me, when under the Impressions of Resentment, for the Blows his Passion too often urg'd him to bestow upon me. Tho' he was otherwise not an ill-natur'd Man: Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking.
When he found I would leave him, he took care to prevent my getting Employment in any other Printing-House of the Town, by going round and speaking to every Master, who accordingly refus'd to give me Work. I then thought of going to New York as the nearest Place where there was a Printer: and I was the rather inclin'd to leave Boston, when I reflected that I had already made myself a little obnoxious to the governing Party; and from the arbitrary Proceedings of the Assembly in my Brother's Case it was likely I might if I stay'd soon bring myself into Scrapes; and farther that my indiscrete Disputations about Religion began to make me pointed at with Horror by good People, as an Infidel or Atheist. I determin'd on the Point: but my Father now siding with my Brother, I was sensible that if I attempted to go openly, Means would be used to prevent me. My Friend Collins therefore undertook to manage a little for me. He agreed with the Captain of a New York Sloop for my Passage, under the Notion of my being a young Acquaintance of his that had got a naughty Girl with Child, whose Friends would compel me to marry her, and therefore I could not appear or come away publickly. So I sold some of my Books to raise a little Money, Was taken on board privately, and as we had a fair Wind in three Days I found my self in New York near 300 Miles from home, a Boy of but 17, without the least Recommendation to or Knowledge of any Person in the Place, and with very little Money in my Pocket.
My Inclinations for the Sea, were by this time worne out, or I might now have gratify'd them. But having a Trade, and supposing my self a pretty good Workman, I offer'd my Service to the Printer of the Place, old Mr. Wm. Bradford (who had been the first Printer in Pensilvania, but remov'd from thence upon the Quarrel of Geo. Keith). He could give me no Employment, having little to do, and Help enough already: But, says he, my Son at Philadelphia has lately lost his principal Hand, Aquila Rose, by Death. If you go thither I believe he may employ you. Philadelphia was 100 Miles farther. I set out, however, in a Boat for Amboy, leaving my Chest and Things to follow me round by Sea. . .
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I made my self as tidy as I could, and went to Andrew Bradford the Printer's. I found in the Shop the old Man his Father, whom I had seen at New York, and who travelling on horse back had got to Philadelphia before me. He introduc'd me to his Son, who receiv'd me civilly, gave me a Breakfast, but told me he did not at present want a Hand, being lately supply'd with one. But there was another Printer in town lately set up, one Keimer, who perhaps might employ me; if not, I should be welcome to lodge at his House, and he would give me a little Work to do now and then till fuller Business should offer.
The old Gentleman said, he would go with me to the new Printer: And when we found him, Neighbour, says Bradford, I have brought to see you a young Man of your Business, perhaps you may want such a One. He ask'd me a few Questions, put a Composing Stick in my Hand to see how I work'd, and then said he would employ me soon, tho' he had just then nothing for me to do . . .[1c]